Research Article |
Corresponding author: John P. Sullivan ( jpsullivan@cornell.edu ) Academic editor: Pedro Bragança
© 2022 John P. Sullivan, Carl D. Hopkins, Stacy Pirro, Rose Peterson, Albert Chakona, Tadiwa I. Mutizwa, Christian Mukweze Mulelenu, Fahad H. Alqahtani, Emmanuel Vreven, Casey B. Dillman.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC0 Public Domain Dedication.
Citation:
Sullivan JP, Hopkins CD, Pirro S, Peterson R, Chakona A, Mutizwa TI, Mukweze Mulelenu C, Alqahtani FH, Vreven E, Dillman CB (2022) Mitogenome recovered from a 19 th Century holotype by shotgun sequencing supplies a generic name for an orphaned clade of African weakly electric fishes (Osteoglossomorpha, Mormyridae). ZooKeys 1129: 163-196. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1129.90287
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Heteromormyrus Steindachner, 1866, a genus of Mormyridae (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha), has been monotypic since the description of Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus (Steindacher, 1866) from a single specimen. No type locality other than “Angola” was given and almost no specimens have been subsequently identified to this species. In order to investigate the relationship of this taxon to fresh specimens collected in Angola and elsewhere, whole genome paired-end sequencing of DNA extracted from the holotype specimen of Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus was performed and a nearly complete mitogenome assembled from the sequences obtained. Comparison of cytochrome oxidase I and cytochrome b sequences from this mitogenome to sequences from recently collected material reveal that Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus is closely related to specimens identified as Hippopotamyrus ansorgii (Boulenger, 1905), Hippopotamyrus szaboi Kramer, van der Bank & Wink, 2004, Hippopotamyrus longilateralis Kramer & Swartz, 2010, as well as to several undescribed forms from subequatorial Africa collectively referred to in the literature as the “Hippopotamyrus ansorgii species complex” and colloquially known as “slender stonebashers.” Previous molecular phylogenetic work has shown that these species are not close relatives of Hippopotamyrus castor Pappenheim, 1906, the type species of genus Hippopotamyrus Pappenheim, 1906 from Cameroon, and are thus misclassified. Hippopotamyrus ansorgii species complex taxa and another species shown to have been misclassified, Paramormyrops tavernei (Poll, 1972), are placed in genus Heteromormyrus and one genetic lineage from the Kwanza and Lucala rivers of Angola are identified as conspecific Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus. Three additional new combinations and a synonymy in Mormyridae are introduced. The morphological characteristics and geographical distribution of the genus Heteromormyrus are reviewed. The electric organ discharges (EODs) of Heteromormyrus species are to be treated in a separate study.
Angolan freshwater fishes, Heteromormyrus, Hippopotamyrus, historical DNA, mitogenomics, mormyrid, museomics, slender stonebasher
Mormyrid fishes are well known for their unusual morphologies, large brains, and ability to generate and sense weak electric pulses for object location and communication (
Despite efforts at taxonomic revision in the pre-molecular era (
The “Hippopotamyrus ansorgii species complex” (HaSC) is an informal term used to denote Hippopotamyrus ansorgii (Boulenger, 1905) plus three more described and additional undescribed species of mormyrid weakly electric fishes known in anglophone southern Africa as “slender stonebashers” (
Losing their parent taxon (Hippopotamyrus) renders these species taxonomic orphans. Given this clade’s phylogenetic position within Mormyridae it is not obvious which other genus as currently defined could accept them. Before considering introduction of a new generic name, we needed first to determine whether an available name with priority exists. We wondered if the natural home for these orphaned species might be Heteromormyrus Steindachner, 1866, coincidently the single valid mormyrid genus missing from published molecular datasets.
Franz Steindachner described Mormyrus (Heteromormyrus) pauciradiatus from a single specimen, catalogued in the Naturhistorisches Museum Vienna as NMW 22417 (
Reticence of taxonomists to use either this specific or generic name during the past 150 years may be due to the holotype’s unusually short caudal peduncle that places its morphometric ratios outside the range of most other specimens as well as its imprecise type locality. Nonetheless, we suspected H. pauciradiatus might be related to the species of the HaSC both because of general phenotypic similarity and its geographic provenance: we know the freshwaters of Angola to be particularly rich in forms belonging to this mormyrid clade, many still undescribed (
Without fresh specimens identified as H. pauciradiatus we were prevented from exploring this question using molecular phylogenetics. However, because this type specimen appears to have been originally preserved in ethanol and never fixed in formalin, we thought it might yield DNA. We were encouraged that efforts at PCR-based Sanger sequencing of other Steindachner types from the same era have been successful (
In contrast to H. pauciradiatus, many specimens have been identified (rightly or wrongly) to the taxon Hippopotamyrus ansorgii (Boulenger, 1905) during the past 117 years, although it is also a species with an uncertain type locality. However, in a recent study
The curator of the Naturhistorisches Museum Vienna supplied us with right-side gill arch and gill filament tissue as well as a right-side pectoral fin clip from the Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus holotype, NMW 22417. Specimen measurements and counts performed for this study follow
DNA extraction, Illumina platform library preparation and whole-genome short-read sequencing was performed by the GeneWiz Corporation of South Plainfield, New Jersey, USA and were conducted separately for the fin clip and the gill arch tissue samples.
Genomic DNA was extracted with a Qiagen DNeasy Kit with the following three modifications to the manufacturer-recommended procedure: (1) wide-bore pipette tips were used to minimize DNA damage by shearing; (2) the proteinase K digestion was performed for 15 minutes only; (3) elution consisted of three repeats of adding 10 µl of 0.1× TE warmed to 37 °C to the spin column, incubated for 10 min at 37 °C before collection by centrifugation.
For library preparation the Illumina TruSeq library kit was used with these modifications of the manufacturer’s recommended protocol for the degraded sample: no size selection of DNA was performed and half the recommended amounts of all reagents were used.
The constructed libraries were sequenced as 150 bp paired ends on the Illumina HiSeq X Ten platform, multiplexed five samples per run. The reads were deposited into NCBI’s Sequence Read Archive (SRA) under the accession number SRX7700131.
For a separate project on Osteoglossomorpha phylogeny
From the SRA of the H. longilateralis specimen, SRX5986274, we generated a complete mitogenome using the SMART2 (Statistical Mitogenomes Assembly with RepeaTs) pipeline (
The same SMART2 pipeline was unable to reconstruct the mitogenome from the SRA for the H. pauciradiatus holotype NMW 22417, likely due to the much lower quantity of data sequenced from the highly degraded DNA present in the extraction.
Alternatively, we used the entire H. longilateralis mitogenome sequence as a query sequence in a BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) search (Standard Nucelotide BLAST) against the SRA library obtained from NMW 22417 (SRX7700131). We conducted two such searches: one using the setting for “highly similar sequences (megablast)” and the other with the setting “somewhat similar sequences (blastn)” with maximum target sequences set to 5000, max matches in a query range set to 50, and all other settings at default values. From the results page of each search, using the alignment view “query-anchored with dots for identities” and setting line length to 150, we downloaded the alignments as text files. We reconstructed the sequence of the holotype in a text editor by changing bases in the top (query) sequence where necessary to match those in the high similarity aligned sequences, using ambiguity codes and “N” for missing sites where necessary. (Assembling a long, new sequence of interest from short read sequence data in NCBI’s SRA using a query sequence from a related species in NCBI’s Web BLAST tool is demonstrated in an online video (
We used cytochrome b (Cyt-b) and cytochrome oxidase I (COI) sequences from the reconstructed mitogenome of Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus holotype NMW 22417 in two separate phylogenetic analyses that included previously unpublished sequences of both markers from a specimen of Paramormyrops tavernei (Poll, 1972), RMCA Vert 2018-032-P-0047, from the upper Lufira River in D.R. Congo and an undescribed HaSC species from the Inkisi River in D.R. Congo (AMNH 247102). The latter two specimens had been included in the recent phylogenomic study of
For the Cyt-b analysis we began with the multi-locus alignment used by
The separate COI alignment included sequences from the H. pauciradiatus holotype NMW 22417, the P. tavernei and the Inkisi River specimens, plus all COI sequences from HaSC species publicly available in BOLD and GenBank. The analysis included 96 individuals and was rooted with a sequence from Marcusenius cyprinoides from the BOLD database. This outgroup taxon was chosen as a member of the sister group to the Heteromormyrus clade based on the results of
All ingroup specimens used in both analyses are listed in Suppl. material
We inferred these two phylogenetic trees using the maximum likelihood optimality criterion in RAxML HPC v. 8.2.12 (
Sequencing the DNA extraction from the holotype fin clip yielded no data. Sequencing the DNA extraction from the gill arch tissue yielded 1.3 gigabases of paired-end sequences, available on NCBI’s Sequence Read Archive under accession SRX7700131. For comparison, Illumina sequencing of 40 other mormyrid taxa from tissues sampled within the past 20 years (preserved in 95% ethanol or buffer) yielded between 21 and 32 gigabases of sequence data.
To ascertain whether mitochondrial sequences were present in the recovered data we used a 1060 bp Cyt-b sequence from a specimen identified as H. ansorgii accessioned in the GenBank Nucleotide database (AY236991) as a query sequence in a BLAST search against the SRA data in SRX7700131. BLAST hits of high similarity were matched across nearly the entire query sequence. On the BLAST search result page we set the alignment view to “query-anchored with dots for identities” with a line length of 150 characters and downloaded the results as text. We reconstructed all but 23 bases of the 1060 bp fragment from NMW 22417 in a text editor by changing bases in the top (query) sequence where necessary to match those in the high similarity aligned sequenced fragments.
We BLASTed (using megablast) this reconstructed Cyt-b sequence against the entire NCBI Nucleotide archive and found highest similarity (94.6% to 96.5%) to sequences identified as Hippopotamyrus sp., H. ansorgii, H. szaboi, and H. longilateralis.
To test whether our reconstructed sequence may have been affected by the choice of query sequence we repeated the process using two different mormyrid Cyt-b sequences from GenBank as queries: Marcusenius moorii AF201595 and Paramormyrops kingsleyae AF477422. In both cases, the sequences we reconstructed for NMW 22417 matched the sequence reconstructed using the H. ansorgii query base-for-base, although many more differences were observed between the SRA sequences and these query sequences.
Using this method of “SRA BLASTing” and downloading the resulting text file (Sullivan, 2022), we reconstructed the mitogenome of the Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus holotype using the complete mitogenome of H. longilateralis (GenBank accession MZ151890) as query sequence. Short stretches of bases in the query sequence that found no matches in the BLAST search of the SRA were coded as Ns in the reconstructed sequence.
We found 100 cytosine (C) sites in the query sequence at which aligned reads from holotype NMW 22417 are both C and thymine (T), producing a Y ambiguity code in the inferred sequence. We noted a smaller but significant number (24) of ambiguous calls at sites where a guanine (G) in the query sequence is matched to holotype sequences containing both G and adenine (A) that we coded with an R ambiguity code. Sites where Ts and As in the query sequence produced ambiguity codes in the reconstructed sequence were much less common. This observation is consistent with a known consequence of sequencing template DNA that has been subject to hydrolytic deamination of cytosine to uracil (U), a naturally occurring process as DNA degrades in an aqueous solution. In these cases the polymerase incorporates an A across from each deaminated U site in the template DNA fragments and then in turn a T across from each A on the complementary strands, producing apparent G → A and C → T substitutions (
The final mitogenome consists of 16750 bp with 781 sites (4.6%) coded as N for missing, 100 coded as Y, 24 as R, 11 as M (A or C) and four as W (A or T). (In calculating the number of missing bases scored as N in the reconstructed H. pauciradiatus mitogenome we made the assumption that missing sequence was equal in length to the H. longilateralis query sequence. There are likely to be small length differences between the two mitogenomes in non-coding regions, hence the reported total length of the holotype mitogenome is inexact.) The circular genome as reconstructed by the MitoFish MitoAnnotator is shown in Fig.
Visual representation of 16750 base-pair mitochondrial genome of Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus holotype specimen NMW 22417 as reconstructed from 150 base-pair, paired-end sequence data. Image produced from MitoFish MitoAnnotator v. 3.63. Coding genes black, non-coding regions red (tRNA genes), gold (ribosomal RNA genes) and brown (control region or D-loop). Genes transcribed on L-strand indented. Innermost circle represents percent GC per five base-pair segment, darker = higher; white areas indicate missing data. Because no sequences were recovered for the short tRNA-Ile gene, it appears absent from its normal position between genes ND1 and tRNA-Gln. Annotated mitogenome available in NCBI GenBank as accession ON533765.
Using the same method, we attempted to reconstruct nuclear markers rps7 and rag2 from the holotype SRA using mormyrid sequences available in GenBank as query sequences, but BLAST searches found no significant matches. We suspect our greater success recovering mitochondrial sequences has to do with the far higher cellular copy number of mitochondrial versus nuclear genomes, enhancing the probability of persistence of some long DNA fragments of mitochondrial origin in highly degraded templates (
Accession numbers and their GenSeq status (
Accession numbers and GenSeq status for DNA sequences and genomes generated for this study, archived in NCBI GenBank and the NCBI Sequence Read Archive (SRA). WG = whole genome (unassembled Illumina paired-end reads).
Species | Voucher Catalog No. | Type Status | Locus/Loci | Sequence Read Achive | GenBank Accession(s) | GenSeq status |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus | NMW 22417 | holotype | WG, mitogenome | SRX7700131 | ON533765 | genseq-1 mitogenome |
Heteromormyrus longilateralis | SAIAB 78793 | holotype | WG, mitogenome | SRX5986274 | MZ151890 | genseq-1 mitogenome |
Heteromormyrus tavernei | RMCA Vert 2018-032-P-0047 | nontype | COI, Cyt-b | – | ON843622, ON858019 | genseq-4 COI, genseq-4 CytB |
Heteromormyrus sp. Inkisi River | AMNH 247102 | nontype | COI, Cyt-b | – | ON843623, ON858020 | – |
Heteromormyrus aff. szaboi Kabompo EODtype1 | SAIAB 210091/KW12-AT3408/SB8355 | nontype | Cyt-b | – | ON088276 | – |
Heteromormyrus aff. szaboi Kabompo EODtype1 | SAIAB 210127/KW12-AT2748/SB8356 | nontype | Cyt-b | – | ON088277 | – |
Heteromormyrus aff. szaboi Kabompo EODtype2 | SAIAB 210191/KW12-AT3411/SB8357 | nontype | Cyt-b | – | ON088278 | – |
Heteromormyrus aff. szaboi Kabompo EODtype1 | SAIAB 210191/KW12-AT1012/SB8358 | nontype | Cyt-b | – | ON088279 | – |
Heteromormyrus aff. szaboi Kabompo EODtype1 | SAIAB 210191/KW12-AT2645/SB8359 | nontype | Cyt-b | – | ON088280 | – |
Heteromormyrus aff. szaboi Kabompo EODtype1 | SAIAB 210191/KW12-AT4962/SB8360 | nontype | Cyt-b | – | ON088281 | – |
Heteromormyrus aff. szaboi Kabompo EODtype2 | SAIAB 210191/KW12-AT2664/SB8361 | nontype | Cyt-b | – | ON088282 | – |
Heteromormyrus aff. szaboi Kabompo no EOD | SAIAB 210234/KW12-AT4937/SB8362 | nontype | Cyt-b | – | ON088283 | – |
Heteromormyrus aff. szaboi Kabompo no EOD | SAIAB 210234/KW12-AT2000/SB8363 | nontype | Cyt-b | – | ON088284 | – |
Heteromormyrus aff. szaboi Kabompo no EOD | SAIAB 210243/KW12-AT4914/SB8364 | nontype | Cyt-b | – | ON088285 | – |
Heteromormyrus aff. szaboi Kabompo no EOD | SAIAB 210257/KW12-AT4203/SB8365 | nontype | Cyt-b | – | ON088286 | – |
Heteromormyrus aff. szaboi Kabompo no EOD | SAIAB 210272/KW12-AT4984/SB8366 | nontype | Cyt-b | – | ON088287 | – |
Heteromormyrus aff. szaboi Kabompo EODtype1 | SAIAB 210149/KW12-AT912/SB8367 | nontype | Cyt-b | – | ON088288 | – |
The tree produced from the phylogenetic analysis of the Cyt-b sequence data added to the
Phylogenetic position of Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus and other taxa of interest within subfamily Mormyrinae, inferred from cytochrome b and other markers. Maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree calculated in RAxML of 113 mormyrin OTUs, including all nominal mormyrin genera, from alignment of 4209 bases of mitochondrial cytochrome b, 12S, 16S and nuclear rag2 and rps7 intron. Rooted with Myomyrus macrops. Dataset is from
Enlargement of the newly recognized Heteromormyrus clade (including species and informally named entities formerly said to belong to the Hippopotamyrus ansorgii species complex) from the full tree in Fig.
In this tree the H. pauciradiatus holotype sequence falls within a cluster of three haplotypes from four specimens of the K4 mitochondrial lineage identified in
The Cyt-b sequence from Paramormyrops tavernei places it as sister lineage to a clade containing H. szaboi and related forms while the sequence from the Inkisi River specimen places it in a position subtending all other lineages within the HaSC clade with the exception of the K5 lineage that is sister group to the rest.
This tree recapitulates the finding reported in
The tree produced from the phylogenetic analysis of the COI sequence data (Fig.
Maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree calculated in RAxML for 96 Hippopotamyrus ansorgii species complex COI sequences from the Barcode of Life Database (BOLD) with the addition of sequences from the holotype of Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus NMW 22417 (bold red type), Hippopotamyrus longilateralis holotype, Paramormyrops tavernei (red type) and an undescribed species from the Inkisi River in D.R. Congo (red type). Rooted with Marcusenius cyprinoides. Bootstrap values at selected nodes. Organismal names reproduced as they appear in BOLD. Colors of species/clades match those used in
In both analyses, bootstrap values indicate strong support for the inclusion of the H. pauciradiatus holotype sequences within the lineage called K4 by
Based on the phylogenetic results, we regroup six valid species into genus Heteromormyrus Steindachner, 1866, a name originally introduced as a subgenus of Mormyrus Linnaeus, 1758, but recognized by
Subfamily Mormyrinae Taverne, 1972
Heteromormyrus
Steindachner, 1866: 765 [as subgenus of Mormyrus; elevated to genus by
Mormyrus (Heteromormyrus) pauciradiatus Steindachner, 1866: 765, pl. 13, fig. 2.
Marcusenius pauciradiatus
(Steindachner) [new combination by
Marcusenius (Heteromormyrus) pauciradiatus
(Steindachner) [new subgeneric combination by
Pollimyrus pauciradiatus
(Steindachner) [new combination by
Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus
(Steindacher) [new combination by
Marcusenius ansorgii Boulenger, 1905a: 457.
Hippopotamyrus ansorgii
(Boulenger) [new combination by
Marcusenius pappenheimi Boulenger, 1910: 540.
Hippopotamyrus pappenheimi
(Boulenger) [new combination by
Brienomyrus tavernei Poll, 1972: 166, fig. 2.
Paramormyrops tavernei
(Poll) [new combination by
Hippopotamyrus szaboi Kramer, van der Bank & Wink, 2004: 6, fig. 1A, B.
Hippopotamyrus longilateralis Kramer & Swartz, 2010: 2231, fig. 1A.
Images of type specimens of these species are shown in Fig.
Images of types of Heteromormyrus species in left-side lateral view. A Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus (Steindacher, 1866), holotype, NMW 22417, Angola, 108 mm TL, photograph Naturhistorisches Museum Vienna B Heteromormyrus tavernei (Poll, 1972), holotype, MRAC 79-1-P-137, Masombwe, Kipepe River, tributary of Tumbwe River, Congo River basin, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 139 mm SL; photograph T. Nève, RMCA C Heteromormyrus szaboi (Kramer, van der Bank & Wink, 2004), holotype, SAIAB 67143, upper Zambezi River, Katima Mulilo, 17°29'30"S, 24°16'18"E. 94 mm SL; photograph A. Chakona D Heteromormyrus longilateralis (Kramer & Swartz, 2010), holotype, SAIAB 78793, above Epupa Falls, Kunene River, on the Namibian/Angolan border, 17°00'07"S, 013°14'57"E; 187 mm SL; photograph Kramer & Swartz E Heteromormyrus ansorgii (Boulenger, 1905a), syntype BMNH 1905.5.29.62; between Benguella and Bihé [Benguela and Bié], Angola; 96.9 mm SL; photograph J.P. Sullivan F Heteromormyrus pappenheimi (Boulenger, 1910), syntype ANSP 37971, Kwanza River at Cunga [= Cabala], Angola, 134 mm SL, right side reflected to face left; photograph K. Luckenbill, ANSP. Scale bars: 1 cm.
A more complete history of the generic name Heteromormyrus is as follows. As related above,
Referring the HaSC species and P. tavernei to genus Heteromormyrus is one small advance in what will have to be a much larger effort to establish natural (i.e., monophyletic) genera in the family Mormyridae. The sister clade to Heteromormyrus in the tree of
Franz Steindachner could not be more specific than “Angola” for the provenance of most of the species treated in his 1866 publication because he had obtained these specimens thirdhand: “all the described species with the exception of the Cyprinoidei I received during my second stay at Cadiz for a not inconsiderable amount of money from a Portuguese merchant who had just returned from Angola” (
In his 1866 article, the first on Angolan freshwater fishes, Steindachner described eight other species (no other Mormyridae), two of which are now regarded as junior synonyms. These taxa—three cichlids, two clariid catfishes, two small barbs and one kneriid—are species characteristic of the Angolan coastal freshwater fauna (
While a complete comparative morphometric and meristic treatment of Heteromormyrus species is beyond the scope of this study, for the purposes of preliminary comparisons we have assembled measurements taken by
The unusual appearance of the Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus holotype NMW 22417 is due to its short dorsal fin (17 rays) placed far back on the body and a very short (but deep) caudal peduncle. This is best captured by the morphometric ratio of the pre-dorsal length (tip of snout to origin of dorsal fin) divided by the standard length (PDL/SL). This ratio is 76% in the holotype, far higher than for any other mormyrid type or non-type specimen included in (Suppl. material
The reason for the holotype specimen’s strange proportions is revealed in a radiograph showing an abnormality in the caudal skeleton (Fig.
Radiographs showing caudal vertebrae in a recently collected Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus and in the H. pauciradiatus holotype NMW 22417. Vertebrae are numbered from first post-cranial centrum. A caudal peduncle of non-type Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus SAIAB 85120_SAF518-09(originally identified as lineage K4) from the Lucala River of Angola with 41 total vertebrae. Identical vertebral count was found in five other radiographed specimens of this species B caudal peduncle of Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus holotype NMW 22417, showing total vertebral count of 37, four fewer caudal vertebrae than a normal individual, and supernumerary neural and hemal spines at vertebrae 31, 32, and 34.
Having linked the somewhat misshapen type of H. pauciradiatus to recently collected specimens, we can identify some phenotypic characteristics that seem to distinguish this species from its congeners, pending more thorough study. (In the following we remove the holotype from comparisons involving the caudal peduncle.) The body of H. pauciradiatus is shorter and deeper and the head is deeper than in other described Heteromormyrus: body depth 25–31% of SL, head depth 84–97% of head length. Pre-dorsal distance is a greater percentage of SL than for other Heteromormyrus, 66–70%. The caudal peduncle is deeper than in other described Heteromormyrus: caudal peduncle depth 46–55% of caudal peduncle length. The eye of this species is small, 12–15% of head length.
As noted above, until now only a single non-type specimen seems to have ever been referred to H. pauciradiatus. It is a very large individual (175 mm SL) collected by W.J. Ansorge in the Bengo River at Cabiri (8°54'52"S, 13°39'57"E), identified as H. pauciradiatus by George Boulenger (
The peculiar holotype of H. pauciradiatus aside, the rather generalized appearance of all described and undescribed Heteromormyrus species and their lack of any obvious shared distinctive phenotypic character(s) may help explain why circumscription of this genus had to wait for molecular phylogenetic analysis. Species of the newly defined genus Heteromormyrus, here taken to include H. pauciradiatus, H. ansorgii, H. pappenheimi, H. tavernei, H. szaboi, H. longilateralis, as well as undescribed forms studied in
The study of
Species of Heteromormyrus more closely resemble species of Brienomyrus Taverne, 1971, Paramormyrops Taverne, Thys van den Audenaerde & Heymer, 1977 and Ivindomyrus Taverne & Géry, 1975 in body proportions and counts, hence the mistaken placement of H. tavernei originally in Brienomyrus and its subsequent transfer to Paramormyrops (
It is our hope that targeted study of these similar-appearing clades of mormyrids using computed tomography (CT) will reveal heretofore missed osteological differences and diagnostic characters for some of these genera.
Quite opposite the example of the unused taxon Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus, the name Marcusenius ansorgii / Hippopotamyrus ansorgii was initially overapplied to allopatric populations now recognized as multiple species of slender stonebasher (
In the description of H. szaboi, additional forms “HaZ” (for Zambezi River) and “HaK” (for Kwando River) were recognized based on EOD and sequence differences from H. szaboi but not described as species. The HaZ form was reported to occur in sympatry with H. szaboi at its type locality in the Zambezi. More recently, one of us (A.C.) has collected two EOD morphs of a szaboi-like fish in the Kabompo River, a major left-bank tributary of the upper Zambezi in northwestern Zambia. These were included in our phylogenetic analysis of Cyt-b sequences which establishes that H. szaboi and these szaboi-like forms (HaK, HaZ, unrecorded Zambezi fish, and Kabompo EOD morphs 1 and 2) constitute a monophyletic group. This group is divided into two subclades: one consisting of H. szaboi sensu stricto and the other containing all the other szaboi-like forms. Within the latter subclade there is little structure, despite evident morphological and EOD differences among the specimens (pers. obs.). The species status of these szaboi-like forms, referred to as H. szaboi in
Research teams from the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity (NRF-SAIAB) have collected other slender stonebashers in southeastern Africa that merit further study and consideration of species status in the Ruo, Buzi, and Pungwe rivers. DNA sequences from these were included in the study of
From the upper Lualaba and Lufira basins upstream of Lake Upemba in northern Katanga of D.R. Congo, this is the only described species of Heteromormyrus from a part of the Congo Basin. Originally placed in genus Brienomyrus by
Images of recently collected Heteromormyrus specimens from which DNA sequences are used in this study A Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus SAIAB 85120_RM, Lucala River above Kalendula Falls, Kwanza Basin, Angola. Partial COI sequence from this specimen is identical to that recovered from H. pauciradiatus holotype B Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus SAIAB 84683_RM, Lucala River at N’dalatando Farm, Kwanza Basin, Angola C Heteromormyrus tavernei RMCA Vert 2018-032-P-0047 tag no. MC-1008, upper Lufira River before the confluence with Panda River, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Specimen sequenced for
Even after removing the misclassified HaSC species, genus Hippopotamyrus requires more attention as it contains several species that have never been well studied. Below we perform some housekeeping with four species currently classified in this genus, three of which belong neither in Hippopotamyrus nor in Heteromormyrus. Three of these four determinations lack DNA sequence data and are based on the sum total of available information, including original descriptions and photographs of types available on the Mormyridae Scratchpad website (Sullivan & Lavoué, 2022) and reports from field workers.
Boulenger’s description of this species (in Marcusenius, later placed by some authors in Gnathonemus before
Boulenger remarks that this species from Poko, Bas Uélé Province in D.R. Congo, described as Marcusenius macroterops, is “très voisine” to M. tumifrons Boulenger, 1902 which today is placed in genus Pollimyrus Taverne, 1971. With its large eye and dorsal fin terminus farther posterior than the anal fin terminus, it bears even more resemblance in our opinion to Pollimyrus plagiostoma (Boulenger, 1898), also from the Congo Basin. There can be little doubt this species belongs in Pollimyrus, a genus shown to be monophyletic in
Another Boulenger species from the Congo Basin described as a Marcusenius, later transferred to Hippopotamyrus by
This unsequenced species originally described under Marcusenius is from the Kagera River and Lake Victoria in eastern Africa. It should be placed in genus Cyphomyrus Myers, 1960 by virtue of its arched dorsum and longer dorsal than anal fin. Photographs of specimens from recent collections of this species (D. Twedle, pers. comm.) show it to bear close resemblance to Cyphomyrus discorhynchus (Peters, 1852).
The known distribution of Heteromormyrus species and populations extends from Atlantic to Indian Ocean watersheds between the latitudes of approximately 5°–20°S, making it the only mormyrid genus restricted to subequatorial Africa (Fig.
Map of continental Africa between 3° South latitude and Tropic of Capricorn showing distribution of Heteromormyrus species and lineages (sequenced specimens and other identified specimens). Type localities shown as star symbols. The localities of two EOD types of H. aff. szaboi, termed HaK and HaZ in
The center of diversity for the clade appears to be the Kwanza Basin of Angola in which at least five genetic lineages (K1–K5) occur, some in sympatry (
Since the early 1900s the standard practice for preserving fish specimens destined for collections has been fixation in a 10% formalin (= 4% formaldehyde) solution for days or weeks before transfer to 70–75% ethanol or 50% isopropanol. Earlier, fish specimens were simply preserved directly in “spirits,” i.e., an ethanol solution of uncertain concentration. Formalin fixation greatly impairs DNA extraction procedures by cross-linking proteins to the DNA molecules and shearing DNA strands (
Sometimes referred to as “museomics,” the application of high throughput sequencing (HTS) to historical DNA (hDNA) from museum specimens (those not originally intended to preserve genetic material and usually less than two centuries old) is emerging as a field distinct from the one concerned with recovery of ancient DNA (aDNA) from much older, naturally preserved samples (
Old fish type specimens have been sequenced before to solve taxonomic puzzles (e.g.,
The authors are indebted to A. Palandačić, Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria for providing the tissue samples and radiograph of Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus holotype NMW 22417, K. Luckenbill, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, USA for providing the photograph of the H. pappenheimi paratype, T. Nève, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium (RMCA) for the photo of the H. tavernei type, I. Măndoiu, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA for assistance with H. longilateralis mitogenome assembly, M. Stiassny, American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA for access to and tissue from the H. sp. Inkisi River specimen, B. Levin, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia for thoughts on H. harringtoni, D. Leipe, National Center for Biotechnology Information (NLM/NIH), Bethesda, Maryland, USA for translation of the Steindachner text from the German. From the South African Institute of Aquatic Biology (SAIAB), Makhanda, South Africa, we thank N. Mazungula for radiographs of Angolan Heteromormyrus specimens, P. Bragança for photographs of the same specimens and D. Tweddle for thoughts on H. grahami. We are grateful to P. Skelton, formerly of SAIAB, for stimulating early discussions on the identity of Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus. We thank B. Kramer and two anonymous reviewers for their useful comments on an early draft of this article and P. Bragança (again) for his contributions as editor. The authors’ collaboration on Heteromormyrus grew out of a September 2018 workshop on mormyrid fishes held at the University of Lubumbashi (UNILU) in Lubumbashi, D.R. Congo, funded by the Mbisa Congo II Project, a framework agreement between the RMCA and the Belgian Development Cooperation. Sequencing was funded by a grant from Iridian Genomes, RG_2018_042 “Genomic Studies of Mormyrid Fishes” to R. Peterson. This research was supported in part by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the National Library of Medicine (NLM), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA and by Computercraft Corporation, Washington, D.C., USA.
Finally, the authors pay tribute here to Franz Steindachner (1838–1919) for his devotion to the Naturhistorisches Museum Vienna and for his enormous contributions to ichthyology and herpetology (see:
List of Heteromormyrus specimens examined and/or included in molecular analyses
Data type: Excel table.
Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus holotype NMW 22417 mitogenome reconstruction
Data type: Text.
Explanation note: Results of BLASTn search of complete mitogenome of Hippopotamyrus longilateralis SAIAB 79793 against SRA archive SRX7700131 of Heteromormyrus pauciradiatus holotype NMW 22417 and inference of its mitochondrial sequence.
Cyt b plus nuclear markers phylogenetic analysis
Data type: Image (pdf file).
Explanation note: Full tree from RAxML analysis with uncollapsed nodes.
COI phylogenetic analysis
Data type: Image (pdf file).
Explanation note: Full tree from RAxML analysis with uncollapsed nodes.
Measurements and counts of Heteromormyrus specimens and relevant mormyrid types from existing literature and taken from photographs & radiographs of newly sequenced individuals
Data type: Excel table.