Research Article |
Corresponding author: Daniel Masiga ( dmasiga@icipe.org ) Academic editor: Torsten Dikow
© 2018 Claire M. Mugasa, Jandouwe Villinger, Joseph Gitau, Nelly Ndungu, Marc Ciosi, Daniel Masiga.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Mugasa CM, Villinger J, Gitau J, Ndungu N, Ciosi M, Masiga D (2018) Morphological re-description and molecular identification of Tabanidae (Diptera) in East Africa. ZooKeys 769: 117-144. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.769.21144
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Biting flies of the family Tabanidae are important vectors of human and animal diseases across continents. However, records of Africa tabanids are fragmentary and mostly cursory. To improve identification, documentation and description of Tabanidae in East Africa, a baseline survey for the identification and description of Tabanidae in three eastern African countries was conducted. Tabanids from various locations in Uganda (Wakiso District), Tanzania (Tarangire National Park) and Kenya (Shimba Hills National Reserve, Muhaka, Nguruman) were collected. In Uganda, octenol baited F-traps were used to target tabanids, while NG2G traps baited with cow urine and acetone were employed in Kenya and Tanzania. The tabanids were identified using morphological and molecular methods. Morphologically, five genera (Ancala, Tabanus, Atylotus, Chrysops and Haematopota) and fourteen species of the Tabanidae were identified. Among the 14 species identified, six belonged to the genus Tabanus of which two (T. donaldsoni and T. guineensis) had not been described before in East Africa. The greatest diversity of tabanid species were collected from the Shimba Hills National Reserve, while collections from Uganda (around the shores of Lake Victoria) had the fewest number of species. However, the Ancala genus was found in Uganda, but not in Kenya or Tanzania. Maximum likelihood phylogenies of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase 1 (COI) genes sequenced in this study show definite concordance with morphological species identifications, except for Atylotus. This survey will be critical to building a complete checklist of Tabanidae prevalent in the region, expanding knowledge of these important vectors of human and animal diseases.
Tabanids, biting flies, morphology, cytochrome c oxidase 1, COI , Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania
Biting flies of the family Tabanidae (Order Diptera) are of both medical and veterinary importance because the females of most species are blood feeders that can transmit various pathogens to hosts as they feed on animals and humans (Foil 1989, Waage 1949). Pathogens transmitted by Tabanidae include bacteria, protozoa, helminths and viruses (Foil 1989). Moreover, because of their stout mouthparts, tabanids inflict painful bites while feeding, which affects livestock production as the animals are distracted from feeding, resulting in reduced growth rates, weight gain, reduced milk production, and reduced drought resistance, among others. The bite site may also predispose the animal to secondary infections, resulting in loss of hide quality (Yagi 1968).
Because different tabanid genera have been implicated as vectors of various pathogens, their accurate identification is important for disease ecology and management. The role of tabanids in the transmission of arboviruses such as Bovine Leukaemia Virus (BLV) has been documented (
To date, identification of tabanids is based on morphological keys and literature that was published over half a century ago (
Given the limited information on the taxonomy of these flies, their precise identification and classification is currently virtually impossible. This hurdle can be better overcome with the use of molecular DNA barcoding approaches (Hebert et al. 2003;
This study was undertaken to describe, identify and document a baseline COI barcode record of tabanid species occurring at diverse locations in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania using morphological identifications to support a baseline COI barcode record.
In Uganda, flies were trapped in the Lake Victoria basin, specifically in Wakiso District from various sites (Table
Country | Site name | Latitude | Longitude | Elevation (m) | Exact Collection sites |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Uganda | Bubebere | 0°5'1.968"N, 32°25'39.4392"E | 1136 | Swamp at Lake shore | |
Jahazi | 0°5'37.212"N, 32°26'20.9256"E | 1140 | Swamp at Lake shore | ||
Kisubi Beach | 0°7'9.984"N, 32°26'58.5672"E | 1137 | Swamp at Lake shore | ||
Nabinonya | 0°4'13.084"N, 32°28'46.9416"E | 1135 | Swamp at Lake shore | ||
Katalemwa | 0°13'59.52"N, 32°26'30.2928"E | 1154 | Away from open water | ||
Sanda | 0°13'0.516"N, 32°26'30.0552"E | 1157 | Away from open water | ||
Sissa | 0°11'43.692"N, 32°26'35.7756"E | 1144 | Away from open water | ||
Kawuku | 0°9'17.064"N, 32°26'44.8008"E | 1175 | Away from open water | ||
Bussi | 0°9'59.904"N, 32°25'38.2044"E | 1172 | Away from open water | ||
Kenya | Sampu | 1°53'23.1108"S, 36°4'26.2452"E | 663 | Conservation/tourist area | |
Mukinyo | 1°50'2.778"S, 36°4'59.3508"E | 672 | Conservation/tourist area | ||
Marere Circuit | 4°13'36.1164"S, 39°24'46.116"E | 390 | Conservation/tourist area | ||
Zunguluka | 4°20'11.9472"S, 39°15'52.1892"E | 137 | Conservation/tourist area | ||
Buffalo Ridge | 4°14'29.9724"S, 39°26'18.0348"E | 367 | Conservation/tourist area | ||
Muhaka | 4°19'51.1284"S, 39°31'16.8492"E | 663 | Conservation/tourist area | ||
Tanzania | Sangaiwe | 3°56'29.76"S, 35°52'45.768"E | 1000 | National Park | |
Poachers’ Hide | 3°52'57.792"S, 35°56'1.428"E | 999 | National Park |
In Kenya, flies were collected in four sites in the Shimba Hills National Reserve (Buffalo Ridge, Marere Circuit) and the environs in Zunguluka and Muhaka in August 2012. The Buffalo Ridge and Marere Circuit are in designated conservation areas where human activity is limited. Flies were also collected in two sites (Sampu and Mukinyo) in the Nguruman conservation area of southern Kenya in August 2012. The area is characterised by short grasslands interspersed with trees. In Tanzania, flies were collected from two sites (Sangaiwe and Poachers Hide) in the Tarangire National Park in August 2013.
In Uganda, the F-traps (
Flies were pinned and placed in entomological boxes for morphological identification and labelled with area and date of collection. Entomological boxes were kept in the Biosystematic Support Unit (BSU) in icipe. Subsequently, the flies were examined under a light microscope at a magnification of X10; for finer details, a higher magnification of X40 was used. The morphological keys used were those documented by
Maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree of TabanidaeCOI sequences. Sequences from samples collected in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda alongside reference sequences obtained from GenBank. GenBank accessions, tabanid species and sampling locations (where available) are shown. Study sequences are indicated with sampling sites in bold. The branch length scale bar indicates nucleotide substitutions per site. Bootstrap values at the major nodes are of percent agreement among 1000 replicates.
Whole tabanid flies. A Ancala fasciata, discal cell (dc) B Tabanus thoracinus, discal cell (dc), haltare (ht) C Tabanus donaldsoni, distinct R4 appendix (px) D Tabanus taeniola, median stripe (ms), parafacial hair (pf), antennae (at), labellum (lbl), palpus (lp) E Tabanus taeniola variatus, medial triangles (mt), peri-median bands (pm) F Tabanus gratus, haltares (ht), comma shaped shades (cm) G Tabanus guineensis H Atylotus nigromaculatus, eyes with thin black horizontal line (hl) I Atylotus diurnus, haltares (ht), wing with indistinct appendix (px) J Haematopota duttoni K Haematopota fenestralis, double white streak (ds) L Chrysops distinctipennis, hair tufts (hf), bifurcating band (bf).
Key morphological features of sampled tabanid species. A Ancala fasciata B Tabanus donaldsoni green eyes (in fresh sample) C Tabanus donaldsoni, wing with distinct R4 appendix (px), indistict hair tuft (hf) D Atylotus nigromaculatus, wing with short, clear appendix on R4 E Haematopota duttoni, mottled wing with a right angled white thick line (in black circle) between vein A1 and the wing margin, the R4 has a long appendix F Haematopota fenestralis, shiny black callus on frons, eyes have bright coloured bands G Chrysops brucei, lateral view of head showing the antenna, black mouth parts and brown legs (partial).
From each group of morphologically identical specimens, a tibia was isolated from at least one fly in each group (with similar morphological features) and placed in separate plate-wells with 30 µl of 70% ethanol each. Two hundred and nine tissue samples were submitted for DNA extraction and COI barcode sequencing to the Canadian Centre for DNA Barcoding, University of Guelph, out of which 84 sequences could be generated (Suppl. material
We used MAFFT (
From Uganda, 995 female tabanids were collected, while approximately 2300 female tabanids were collected in both Kenya and Tanzania. Male flies were collected in negligible numbers and where thus not included in the study. The tabanids collected were grouped based on both morphology and COI barcode sequence phylogenies (Fig.
Samples of each morphological identification that were submitted for sequencing from each locality per country.
Country | Site of collection | Genus | Species | No. Submitted | No. Sequenced |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kenya | Buffalo Ridge | Haematopota | H. duttoni | 5 | 3 |
H. fenestralis | 4 | 2 | |||
Tabanus | T. taeniola | 1 | 1 | ||
T. guineensis | 2 | 2 | |||
Mukinyo | Tabanus | T. taeniola variatus | 3 | 3 | |
T. gratus | 1 | 1 | |||
Atylotus | At. nigromaculatus | 4 | 2 | ||
Marere Circuit | Haematopota | H. fenestralis | 3 | 3 | |
H. duttoni | 1 | 1 | |||
Zunguluka | Haematopota | H. fenestralis | 4 | 0 | |
Sampu | Tabanus | T. taeniola variatus | 3 | 3 | |
Atylotus | At. diurnus | 2 | 2 | ||
Muhaka | Tabanus | T. donaldsoni | 3 | 3 | |
Atylotus | At. diurnus | 3 | 1 | ||
Tanzania | Sangaiwe | Tabanus | T. taeniola variatus | 5 | 5 |
T. gratus | 5 | 2 | |||
Atylotus | At. nigromaculatus | 8 | 3 | ||
Poacher’s Hide | Tabanus | T. gratus | 1 | 1 | |
T. taeniola variatus | 2 | 2 | |||
Atylotus | At. nigromaculatus | 2 | 2 | ||
Uganda | Mabamba | Tabanus | T. thoracinus | 23 | 1 |
Chrysops | C. brucei | 1 | 0 | ||
Ancala | A. fasciata | 2 | 0 | ||
Bussi | Tabanus | T. thoracinus | 12 | 4 | |
Bubebere | Tabanus | T. thoracinus | 37 | 6 | |
Bugogo | Tabanus | T. thoracinus | 1 | 0 | |
Mikka | Tabanus | T. thoracinus | 2 | 0 | |
Elubbe | Tabanus | T. thoracinus | 3 | 0 | |
Nabinonya | Ancala | A. fasciata | 2 | 2 | |
Kawuku | Chrysops | C. distinctipennis | 1 | 1 | |
Tabanus | T. thoracinus | 11 | 5 | ||
Katalemwa | Tabanus | T. thoracinus | 7 | 3 | |
Sissa | Tabanus | T. thoracinus | 16 | 4 | |
Sanda | Chrysops | C. distinctipennis | 1 | 1 | |
Tabanus | T. thoracinus | 6 | 5 | ||
Kisubi | Ancala | A. fasciata | 4 | 4 | |
Tabanus | T. thoracinus | 9 | 1 | ||
Jahazi | Ancala | A. fasciata | 4 | 3 | |
Chrysops | C. brucei | 1 | 1 | ||
Tabanus | T. thoracinus | 4 | 1 | ||
Total | 209 | 85 |
Clusters within the maximum likelihood phylogeny of COI sequences (Fig.
Images of the tabanids collected during this study and morphologically described at the genus and species level are presented in Figures
We identified tabanid species based on their morphology and in reference to literature of
Shores of Lake Victoria, Uganda
Head. Head as wide as thorax (Suppl. material
Thorax. Thorax brown with brownish-black patterns and black and golden-brown hair, with light brown median stripe that runs down to posterior end of the mesonotum. Median sublateral stripes (st) light brown; may be obscured and only reach half way of mesonotum. Scutellum yellowish and brown shades (brown with yellow postero-lateral border) with white and black hair. Prominent white hair tuft (hf) below postalar callus at base of wing (Suppl. material
Abdomen. Abdomen yellow with yellow and black hair. Seventh segment pointed (Suppl. material
Muhaka, Kenya.
Head. Head wider than thorax. Eyes dark green in freshly collected insects (Fig.
Thorax. Thorax blackish brown with white and black hair. Median stripe not seen, sub-lateral stripes light brown and indistinct (only seen up to middle of thorax). Halteres yellowish brown. Wing clear and R4 on the wing has prominent appendix (px). Tufts of white hair (hf) near postalar callus indistinct (Fig.
Abdomen. Golden-brown dorsal and ventral surfaces of abdomen without patterns but have black and white recumbent hair (Suppl. material
Tarangire National Park, Tanzania.
This fly is darker brown, smaller and slenderer than T. taeniola Palisot de Beauvois (1807). However, the colour of T. gratus Loew (1858) collected from Nguruman, Kenya is lighter brown with golden stripes on abdomen.
Head. Head wider than thorax with slightly concave posterior vertex (Suppl. material
Thorax. Thorax black with black and brown hair; brown median stripe traverses thorax and lateral margins of the scutellum. Sub-lateral stripes greyish brown with golden brown hair. Lateral margins of thorax greyish white. Hair tufts only seen ventrally at the base of wing. White halteres (Suppl. material
Abdomen. Abdomen brown, slender and tapers to the posterior end with black and brown hair, has white median and two lateral stripes pale brownish orange grey, with orange brown part at posterior end of each segment. Stripes have whitish hair. Median stripe narrow in first two segments but widens on the third, widest on the fourth segment before it tapering down to last segment. Lateral stripes wide on first and second segments but gradually narrow as they converge slightly at posterior end of abdomen. Lateral abdominal margins ashy grey (Suppl. material
Shimba Hills, Kenya
Generally, the body is brown and slender (Suppl. material
Head. Head black, as wide as thorax. Black eyes separated by black frons. Bi-partite callus dark brown joined by wide constricted neck and occupies more than half of frons (Suppl. material
Thorax. Brown thorax with two inconspicuous lateral greyish stripes. Thorax covered with recumbent black and white hair. Lateral thoracic margins grey with white hair. Scutellum brown with lighter shade posteriorly with brownish white hair especially at lateral margin. Yellowish brown hair tufts at postalar callus. Halteres light brown. Wing clear with brown pigment at the anterior margin; R4 has a short but visible appendix (Suppl. material
Abdomen. Elongate with more or less parallel sides. Anterior abdominal segments light brown and become darker brown posteriorly with black and white hair. Abdomen bisected by a whitish median stripe with white hair. Last segment flat and rectangular (Suppl. material
Tarangire, Nguruman, Shimba Hills, Kenya
Head. Head wider than thorax with long white parafacial hair (Suppl. material
Thorax. Thorax greyish black with black and whitish hair and median whitish stripe almost reaching posterior end of thorax. Sub-lateral stripes (st) ashy grey, distinctly visible with white hair and continue to posterior mesonotum. Scutellum brown with indistinct hair. Hair tufts at postalar area whitish to golden brown. Halteres yellowish white (Suppl. material
Abdomen. Abdomen orange brown and black, tapers posteriorly such that last segment appears pointed. Abdomen with two peri-median longitudinal orange rectangular bands that progressively darken to dark brown then to black on fifth and sixth segment. Peri-median longitudinal bands enclosing lighter coloured median stripe starts anteriorly as white, becomes orange then finally darkens to light brown on sixth segment. Seventh segment completely black (Suppl. material
Tarangire National Park, Tanzania
Head. Head wide, posterior vertex slightly concave (Suppl. material
Thorax. Thorax greyish brown with long whitish grey hair mixed with black hair. Median stripe distinctly whitish grey reaching posterior thorax. Sublateral stripes greyish white and less distinct, but nevertheless reach the posterior thorax. Dark brown scutellum with recumbent grey hair, especially at margins. Tufts of white hair at postalar callus wing base. Halteres whitish to golden yellow (Suppl. material
Abdomen. Abdomen golden brown with black and white hair, with dorso-medial black band on first two segments, broad on first segment and narrower on second. Band does not completely traverse second segment. Segments with distinct triangular pattern medially light brown anteriorly and fades into greyish brown posteriorly. Triangular patterns have black hair mixed with white hair. Abdomen with black hair laterally; medial abdomen greyish brown with white and black hair. Ventrally brown surface with whitish hair except for last two black segments (Suppl. material
Shores of Lake Victoria, Uganda
Two genetic variants, that could not be distinguished on the basis of the morphological keys identified in the present study.
Head. Head wider than the thorax (Suppl. material
Thorax. Thorax blackish brown with white and black hair and invisible median stripe, sub-lateral stripes indistinct light brown only to middle of thorax. Wing clear and R4 does not have appendix (Suppl. material
Abdomen. Dorsal and ventral surfaces of abdomen orange-brown without patterns, have black and white recumbent hair. Ventral surface may have black hair concentrated on second last segment that appears as dark patch (Suppl. material
Tarangire National Park, Tanzania; Nguruman, Kenya.
Generally, slender body covered with dense golden-brown hair (Suppl. material
Head. Head wide, posterior vertex slightly concave. Eyes pale golden brown with thin black horizontal line or band. Eyes separated by narrow golden-brown frons on posterior quarter and black anteriorly. Callus in two well-separated lower and upper parts shiny black and vaguely round (Suppl. material
Thorax. Black thorax with indistinct stripes and golden-brown hair (Suppl. material
Abdomen. Brown abdomen, slender and slightly tapers posteriorly. Broad black median band that longitudinally dissects abdomen; band with black recumbent hair (Fig.
Atylotus nigromaculatus is the only species in genus Atylotus described by
Muhaka, Shimba Hills, Nguruman, all in Kenya.
Generally, the body is slender and not as hairy as in At. nigromaculatus described above.
Head. Head wider than thorax and eyes pale black without band (Suppl. material
Thorax. Thorax greyish black without visible median stripe, but lateral stripes black and indistinct, halteres white (Suppl. material
Abdomen. Abdomen with thick black band running medially to last segment with black and few white hair; light brown part that is broader anteriorly but narrows posteriorly such that the sixth and seventh segments are completely black. Brown parts of abdomen with black and white hair, black part with mostly black hair and few white hairs. Lateral margins of abdomen black (Suppl. material
Atylotus diurnus is the only species described by
Shimba Hills, Kenya.
Head. Head wider than thorax with vertex at the posterior distinctly concave (Suppl. material
Thorax. Thorax greyish brown with black and white hair. Median and sub lateral stripes whitish and run down to the posterior end of thorax. Fore tibia laterally flattened and dark brown with black and (few) white hair. Fore femur dark brown with black hair. Hind tibia dark brown with black and white hair; hind femur dark brown with black hair. Middle legs resemble hind legs. Tarsi of all legs dark brown with black hair. Wing is brown and mottled characteristic of genus, with typical basicosta with sharp projection and costa covered with short black hair without longitudinal groove. Wing with brown patterns (descriptive of species H. duttoni) and right-angled thick white line (shaped as “7”) running from vein A1 towards wing margin. Wing vein R4 with long appendix (Fig.
Abdomen. Abdomen dark brownish black without patterns and with black and white hair and lateral margins almost parallel to each other. Ventrally, abdomen ashy grey with black hair. Median part dark brown with fine white hair (Suppl. material
Shimba Hills, Zunguluka, Kenya,
Flies in this species are smaller than H. duttoni Newstead, Dutton & Todd (1907) described above.
Head. Head black, broader than long (Suppl. material
Thorax. Thorax greyish brown with clear thin brown medial stripe extending to posterior end of mesonotum, and brown sublateral stripes, slightly wider than median stripe but only reach half way mesonotum. Posterior mesonotum ashy grey, scutellum greyish brown. Halteres yellowish white medially but progressively darken into brown at periphery. Stalks of halteres yellowish white. Fore tibia slightly swollen (wide) anteriorly with yellowish transverse band towards proximal end with white hair. Fore femur dark brown with dark brown hair and few white hairs. Fore tarsus dark brown with dark brown hair. Hind tibia with two transverse bands, proximally and medially; hind femur dark brown with black and white long hair; hind tibia dark brown with black hair and white bands with white hair. Middle leg looks like hind leg. No hair tufts at postalar tufts. Wing with brown and mottled patterns descriptive of genus. Thick double white streak running across wing apex from anterior, as indicated in black oval in Suppl. material
Abdomen. Narrow abdomen tapers slightly posteriorly (Suppl. material
Generally, members of this genus are fragile black flies smaller than all the previously described genera. Members have a characteristic black band that transverses the wing from anterior to posterior margin (Fig.
Wakiso, Uganda
Head. Head as wide as thorax with black eyes separated by greyish black frons. Frons widens slightly towards antennae with black and long white standing hair (Suppl. material
Thorax. Thorax black with black and white hair, no evident stripes. Tufts of golden yellow hair at postalar callus and at notopleural and humeral lobes (Suppl. material
Abdomen. Abdomen black with black hair and parallel lateral sides; posterior border of each segment distinctly grey. Seventh segment rather rounded (Suppl. material
Wakiso, Uganda
Head. Head as wide as thorax with black eyes separated by dark brown frons. Frons widened slightly towards antennae and has black and brown long-standing hair. Callus black and glossy. Lower callus wider than long and oval shaped; upper callus with three ocelli arranged in triangular pattern (two lateral and one median ocellus) (Suppl. material
Thorax. Black thorax with black and brown hair; sub-lateral stripes brown and reach posterior border of mesonotum. Basicosta of wing black with prominent thorn-like projection, while the costa is slender and long without longitudinal groove. Clear wing with longitudinal dark brown band that does not reach posterior margin. Fore leg dark brown with dark brown hair (Suppl. material
Abdomen. Abdomen black with black and white hair and parallel lateral sides that taper slightly at fifth segment. Each segment ashy grey at posterior margin with predominantly white hair. Indistinct greyish median stripe. Seventh segment rounded; ventral abdominal surface black with long fine whitish hair.
The aim of this study was to identify, re-describe and document tabanids in East Africa using morphological features and molecular tools and therefore contribute to understanding the diversity of this important group of disease vectors. It is evident that a highly diverse tabanid fauna is prevalent in the areas where the study was carried out.
The specimens in the genus Atylotus were initially assigned species names based on their morphological features and were found to differ from those that had been described by
In addition, COI barcoding was able to differentiate T. taeniola sensu stricto from its subspecies T. taeniola variatus; the later showed some morphological differences (shape of the callus and the patterns on the dorsal surface of the abdomen) and formed a cluster distinct from T. taeniola. These observed differences may be due to the sampling locations of the specimen. Similarly, in India, a total of 46 specimens belonging to seven species in four genera in two subfamilies were analysed in a recent study using DNA barcoding; all morphologically identifiable species were successfully discriminated. The study further demonstrated the presence of cryptic species in Chrysops dispar and was also able to discriminate closely related species in a “Tabanus striatus species complex” that had no stable taxonomic distinguishing characters (Benerjee et al. 2015). Differences in morphological features and DNA barcodes were used as a basis to consider new haplomorphs of deerflies and horseflies that were identified in the study conducted in Canada. Among the specimens, each tabanid species was found to possess distinct sets of COI haplotypes which discriminated well among species (
Given the continuous ecosystem with the movement of pastoralists and their livestock across borders, as well as wild fauna, the presence of diverse species of tabanids across the East African region is indicative of the risk for disease transmission. Further study of tabanids in the region is warranted. A better coverage of the tabanids in different ecosystems, including the conservation areas and farming communities, will allow better understanding of the risk of transmission of diseases vectored by these flies in both wild and domestic animals. Such information will also be useful for the ecologist and epidemiologist as expounded by
Attempts to document Tabanidae in conservation areas in East Africa have been minimal. Nonetheless, tabanids of the Afrotropical region of southern Africa have been recently re-described, including discussion on their biology, immature stages, economic importance, and classification with a resultant identification key of Afrotropical Tabanidae (
There are new technologies that can be used to enhance the understanding of relationships between the environment and vector as well as risk of emerging vector-borne diseases. These tools continuously capture and analyse a wide range of environmental data including weather, land cover and use, water and atmospheric conditions (
In East Africa, inter-organismic relationship studies using DNA barcoding have been done to identify the source(s) of blood meal for tsetse flies (genus Glossina) and reported diverse source of blood meal including wild mammals (buffalo, giraffe, warthog, elephant and spotted hyena), livestock (cattle). These approaches have similarly been used to identify the diverse blood meal hosts of mosquitoes (
This is the first sudy that describes in detail the morphology of diverse tabanids from various locations in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. The list of tabanids presented in this paper is largely incomplete given the limited study sites and duration of sampling. Thus, further investigation is required to comprehend the whole fauna of tabanid flies and their habitat. Wider surveys that integrate climatic factors, pathogens carried by the tabanids, blood meal sources for the flies, as well as the effect of human activity on their distribution are necessary if the diversity, prevalence and role of tabanids in disease transmission are to be better understood. This will, in turn, enable the instigation of more efficient control measures against these neglected vectors. The findings from the hand-full of sampling sites indicate a need to further investigate neglected insects on a larger scale to establish a concrete tabanid checklist in East Africa.
We thank the Coordinating Office for Control of Trypanosomiasis in Uganda (COCTU), Kenya Wildlife Service, and Tanzania National Parks Authority for facilitating the collections. We are grateful to Canadian Centre for DNA Barcoding, University of Guelph for the sequence analysis of the samples used in this study. We are also thankful to members of the Bio-systematics Unit (BSU) in icipe-Nairobi for technical assistance rendered. This work was supported by Training Health Researchers into Vocational Excellence in East Africa (THRiVE), grant number 087540 funded by the Wellcome Trust, with additional support from the Wellcome Trust (grant 093692) to the University of Glasgow, and icipe institutional funding from the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID), the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), and the Kenyan Government. The funding bodies did not play a role in the design of this study, the collection, analyses and interpretation of data, the writing of the manuscript, or decision to submit the manuscript for publication. The contents of this study are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the supporting offices.
Tabanidae collected (n) from Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania
Supplementary figures S1-S13