Name game conundrum: identical specific epithets in Microgastrinae (Hymenoptera, Braconidae)

Mostafa Ghafouri Moghaddam; Diana Carolina Arias-Penna; Minoo Heidari Latibari; Buntika A. Butcher

doi:10.3897/zookeys.1183.111330

Abstract

It is a privilege to recognize a new species and immortalize it with a name. Taxonomists may use etymologies recalling the sampling locality, habitat, species morphology, people (actor, writer, singer, politician, scientist), culture (customs, beliefs), fictional characters (gods, demons, cartoons), brands, ancient names, and others. Naming a species is a creative act that allows scientists to express their love for nature. By drawing on personal and cultural associations, species names are often imbued with far greater meaning than one might initially assume. Unconventional names for species can be an effective way to capture the imagination of the public and make the species memorable. In other words, species names can be both meaningful and whimsical. The central focus of this study was to pinpoint species in the subfamily Microgastrinae that share the same specific epithet that often creates confusion regarding which species is being referred to. The findings showed that 153 specific epithets were repeated representing 340 species in 52 genera, while the remaining 2,823 species have unique epithets. Three of the five categories proposed accommodate the majority of the etymologies: people (42%), morphology (27%), and geography (15%) whereas the categories of other (9%) and biology (7%) achieve the least representation. Approximately 95% of the same specific epithets had a single clear meaning, while for the remaining 5%, it was not possible to trace etymology. The study revealed that the average length of specific epithets was 9.01 letters, the longest contains 18 (eliethcantillanoae) while the shortest four (eros and erro). Additionally, most identical specific epithets were repeated two times (85.25% of the occurrences), although three (12.82%), five, six, and even nine (each one with 0.64%) repetitions were also found. Finally, a list of recommendations for taxonomists when faced with the task of naming a new species is provided.

Key words

Binomial nomenclature, etymology, ICZN, scientific names, systematics

Introduction

The process of categorization is fundamental to the human experience, as it allows us to make sense of a chaotic, unpredictable environment, and to create order out of what may otherwise seem to be a random jumble of events (e.g., Mervis and Rosch 1981; Ashby and Maddox 2005; Pothos and Wills 2011). By classifying objects and phenomena, humans can elaborate predictions about how the world works, using this knowledge to make decisions and take action (McGarty et al. 2015). Humankind tends to group things into categories based on what they perceive to be the most convenient way of organizing them (i.e., categorization of animals, plants, programming languages, books, vehicles, clothing, food, musical instruments, etc.). This means that, even if the demarcations are not always logical, they are still deeply rooted in the way of looking at the world.

Linnaean nomenclature is the system of naming organisms developed by the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus, and the system uses a two-part Latin name for each species of living and fossil organism. The first part is termed the generic name and indicates the genus and the second one, the specific epithet, the species within the genus (Linnaeus 1751, 1758). Thus, the juxtaposition of these two names creates a unique combination that unambiguously identifies a species from any other similar species. This system has been in use for centuries (since 1751), and it is still the most widely accepted taxonomic nomenclature system by scientists today. Aside from the theoretical and practical advantages of unambiguous species names (Vink et al. 2012; Zeppelini et al. 2021), the Linnaean nomenclature provides the opportunity to use species names to honor the scientists who discovered them, the geographical locations they were found in, or even their interests. Scientific names also are chosen based on the morphological traits of the species, its environment, or the researcher’s creative ideas (Jozwiak et al. 2015; Ohl 2018). This is a way to make the work of classifying species more meaningful. As long as taxonomists adhere to a few basic grammatical rules regulating the derivation of etymologies, they can come up with a unique name for any species (Vendetti and Garland 2019). The creative potential of ascribing names is virtually boundless, presenting a wide range of possibilities and avenues for imaginative expression for the descriptor (Ohl 2018).

A small sampling of specific epithets used in parasitoid wasps is given below. Some epithets allude to species traits [e.g., Wilkinsonellus corpustriacolor Arias-Penna, Zhang & Whitfield (Microgastrinae); it refers to the three colorations on the body; in Arias-Penna et al. 2014]; the locality of a species [e.g., Ophiclypeus chiangmaiensis Kang (Cardiochilinae); only known from Chiang Mai Province in Thailand; in Kang et al. 2023]; and biological aspects such as one of the levels of the tritrophic interactions, food plant-herbivore-parasitoid [e.g., Cotesia typhae Fernández-Triana (Microgastrinae); Typha L. (Poales: Typhaceae) is the genus plant on which the herbivore lepidopteran host feeds on; in Kaiser et al. 2017]. More creatively, epithets may refer to renowned people [e.g., Aleiodes gaga Quicke & Butcher (Rogadinae); Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta (Lady Gaga) is an American singer, songwriter, and actress; in Butcher et al. 2012. Conobregma bradpitti Quicke & Butcher (Rogadinae); William Bradley (Brad) Pitt is an American actor and film producer; in Butcher et al. 2016. Foenatopus nimaarkanii Ghafouri Moghaddam & Rakhshani (Stephanidae); Nima Arkani-Hamed is an American-Canadian theoretical physicist of Iranian descent; in Ghafouri Moghaddam et al. 2019], a fictional cartoon character [e.g., Masona popeye Quicke & Chaul (Masoninae); Popeye the Sailor Man cartoon; in Quicke et al. 2019], or simply represents a wordplay [e.g., Hypomicrogaster zan Valerio (Microgastrinae); the name is a random combination of letters without any meaning; in Valerio and Whitfield 2015].

The use of Latin and Latinized Greek words has been accepted and mandated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), which sets out the rules for naming organisms (ICZN 1999). This means that even though taxonomy is evolving and modernizing, Latin, an ancient language, is still the language of choice for naming organisms. The modern classification system has not changed significantly since its introduction centuries ago and is still valid today. Consequently, the Linnaean system is reliable with rules consistent over time.

Taxonomy is a field of science that fosters lively and sometimes contentious discussions. Notable among these is the emergence of novel methods for species classification, including photography-based (e.g., Ceríaco et al. 2016; Chaladze 2017; Faundez 2017), and COI sequence-based taxonomy (e.g., Meierotto et al. 2019; Sharkey et al. 2021; Chua et al. 2023). Furthermore, a plethora of heated debates have surfaced regarding the ICZN regulations (e.g., Dubois 2011; DuBay et al. 2020; Guedes et al. 2023; Pethiyagoda 2023; Roksandic et al. 2023; Slabin 2023; amongst many others), accompanied by a multitude of criticisms and recommendations voiced by researchers through social media platforms such as Taxacom, as well as in the form of published articles encompassing cases, declarations, opinions, comments, and correspondences.

Etymology refers to the study of the origin of words and their meanings (Jozwiak et al. 2015). This process involves tracking down the original description of the word by using dictionaries (Latin or Greek), employing the author’s prior knowledge of classical languages such as Greek and Latin, referring to previous works on the subject, or consulting webpages (e.g., Wikipedia, https://www.wikipedia.org/ and Wikispecies, https://species.wikimedia.org/) (Nilsson 2010).

The pivotal purpose of nomenclature is to establish a unique name for each taxon in the classification system. Maintaining consistency in the usage of organism names holds particular importance currently within digital environments. Binomial scientific names are unique identifiers within databases. In the context of online collaborative environments like the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF, https://www.gbif.org/), it becomes imperative to adhere to standardized criteria during the construction of these databases to ensure seamless utilization (see Welter-Schultes 2012). The ICZN does not impose any restrictions on using identical epithets for naming new species. Frequently, researchers should explore multiple sources to make sure they are looking at the correct species. At first glance, this task can be especially difficult and confusing when two species have identical epithets. To address this confusion, the ICZN (Articles 11, 23, 24, 32, 58, Recommendations 11A, 58A) encourages researchers to use similar names with slightly different spellings, or pairs of scientific and vernacular names to differentiate related species (ICZN 1999).

Etymologies are the stories behind words and their origins. By studying them, one can learn about the history of words and how their meanings have changed over time. This study aimed to delve into the choices made by authors for identical epithets when using etymologies for naming species, with a specific focus on Microgastrinae, a subfamily within the Braconidae that encompasses a total of 3,163 extant species distributed globally (Ghafouri Moghaddam et al. 2023).

Materials and methods

Microgastrinae species names follow Fernández-Triana et al. (2020) which is the most comprehensive and up-to-date list of valid species for the subfamily. Taxonomic changes proposed in the publication were also adopted here. Additionally, all newly discovered species until August 2023 were included. The number of currently known microgastrine species was retrieved from the website Microgastrinae Wasps of the World (Ghafouri Moghaddam et al. 2023). Detailed information from the original description of Microgastrinae species can be found in Fernández-Triana et al. (2020).

This research is laser-focused on a specific subset—species that share identical specific epithets in their names. This subset represents part of the whole diversity of microgastrine names, making the data manageable and easier to compare and analyze. It is worth pointing out that there are instances of partial matches observed in specific epithets. This is attributed to their variations in the spelling, and using the surname or full name, which subsequently these examples were excluded from the analysis (e.g., andybenneti; brasiliensis and braziliensis; brevicarinata and brevicarinis; gavinbroadi; cameronae, sydneyae, and sydneycameronae; and mikesharkeyi).

Species etymologies were classified into five broad categories (in alphabetical order): those referring to (1) biology (host associations, habitat, or some behavioral adaptation), (2) geography (distribution of the species), (3) morphology (morphological traits including size, color, or shape), (4) other (epithets that are puns, arbitrary combinations of letters, names that refer to a legend, names of gods or deities, and many others), and (5) people (fictional characters, scientists, actors, singers, political officials, beloved ones, other people).

The category to which each of the epithets belongs was determined by consulting the original descriptions under the section Etymology. In cases where this section was missing, the text was scrutinized for any clues that provided insight into the meaning of the species epithet.

Results

In total, 153 identical specific epithets were found in Microgastrinae which represent 340 species in 52 genera. The remaining 2,823 species displayed unique epithets. The level of repetition of epithets was low (10.7%) which could potentially lead to inaccurate results when analyzing the specific epithet distributions within the subfamily. The categories of people (42%, corresponding to 142 spp.), morphology (27%, 92 spp.), and geography (15%, 50 spp.) are the ones with the most repeated specific epithets whereas other (9%, 30 spp.) and biology (7%, 26 spp.) obtained the least number of repetitions (Fig. 1). The vast majority (95%) of repeated specific epithets have an unambiguous meaning and only a small fraction (5%) have an uncertain definition and probably multiple meanings.

Figure 1.

The five categories used for the classification of the identical specific epithets in the subfamily Microgastrinae (Hymenoptera, Braconidae) display their respective frequency of use. Colored bars represent categories, blue = biology, purple = geography, green = morphology, orange = others, and black = people.

The vast majority of specific epithets were repeated two times (85.25% of the occurrences) followed by three times (12.82% of the occurrences). In contrast, a small number of specific epithets were repeated five, six, and even nine times but each one accounted for less than 1% of the occurrences (Fig. 2). The specific epithets with the highest number of repetitions were masoni (in nine genera), orientalis (in six genera), and nixoni (in five genera).

Figure 2.

Frequency and percentage frequency distribution of identical and repeated specific epithets within the subfamily Microgastrinae (Hymenoptera, Braconidae).

As to the length of the specific epithet (number of alphabetic characters), the average length was nine. The longest epithet, eliethcantillanoae, contained 18 alphabetic characters and belonged to the people category. The shortest epithets, eros (in the biology category) and erro (in the other category), each contained only four letters. By analyzing each category, the highest number of specific epithets repeated with the same number of letters was located in morphology (eight letters in 12 species) followed by the people category (seven letters in eight species), and the geography category (eleven letters in four species) (Fig. 3).

Figure 3.

Occurrences of identical specific epithets with the same number of alphabetic characters across the five categories within the subfamily Microgastrinae (Hymenoptera, Braconidae). In each circle, the number indicates the number of letters that compose the specific epithet and the relative size of the circle represents the number of species in each group.

When analyzed by category, the same pattern was observed, a large number of specific epithets was repeated twice, meaning assigned to only two genera (Table 1). Thus, the highest percentage of occurrences was in the biology and the other categories, where all of the specific epithets (100%) were repeated twice. In contrast, the category of people had the lowest percentage (15%). Identical specific epithets were also repeated three times but to a lesser extent and only in three categories, geography (25%), morphology (14%), and people (13%). People is the only category with specific epithets replicated two, three, five, and nine times.

Table 1.

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The five categories into which identical specific epithets were classified within the subfamily Microgastrinae (Hymenoptera, Braconidae) with their respective frequency percentages.

Category	Two times	Three times	Five times	Six times	Nine times
Biology	100%	–	–	–	–
Geography	70%	25%	–	5%	–
Morphology	86%	14%	–	–	–
Other	100%	–	–	–	–
People	82%	13%	2%	–	2%

The identical specific epithets in the Microgastrinae species are listed alphabetically as follows.

List of identical specific epithets within the subfamily Microgastrinae

achterbergi

Etymology. The epithet honors the Dutch braconidologist, Cornelis (Kees) van Achterberg, whose work contributes to the knowledge of Braconidae of the world, as well as other Hymenoptera groups. He is a world-renowned hymenopterologist and his work is exemplary and truly remarkable. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Buluka achterbergi Austin, 1989; Choeras achterbergi Narendran, 1998; and Fornicia achterbergi Yang & Chen, 2006.

Category. People.

adrianguadamuzi

Etymology. The epithet refers to Adrian Guadamuz for his contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) both in the Programa de Parataxónomos and the plant inventory of ACG in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Alphomelon adrianguadamuzi Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; Apanteles adrianguadamuzi Fernández-Triana, 2014; and Microplitis adrianguadamuzi Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2015.

Category. People.

aethiopicus

Etymology. The word aethiopicus contains two parts, Aethiopia the Latin spelling of Ethiopia, an east African country located in the Somali peninsula, and the Latin suffix -icus which means belonging to. In taxonomy, the term aethiopicus describes a species that is native to or has characteristics associated with Ethiopia.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Jenopappius aethiopicus (de Saeger, 1944); and Parapanteles aethiopicus (Wilkinson, 1931).

Category. Geography.

alaskensis

Etymology. The term alaskensis contains two parts, Alaska, one of the states in the United States, and the Latin suffix -ensis which means belonging to or inhabiting. In taxonomy, the term alaskensis literally means belonging to Alaska or inhabiting Alaska.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Microplitis alaskensis Ashmead, 1902; and Protapanteles alaskensis Ashmead, 1902.

Category. Geography.

albigena

Etymology. The term albigena comes from two Latin words, albus meaning white and gena meaning cheek. In taxonomy, albigena describes a wasp with white cheeks.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles albigena Fagan-Jeffries, Bird & Austin, 2022; and Protapanteles albigena Abdoli, Fernández-Triana & Talebi, 2021.

Category. Morphology.

albinervis

Etymology. The term albinervis is made up of two Latin words, albi meaning white and nervis meaning veins. In taxonomy, albinervis indicates the white veins of the species.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles albinervis (Cameron, 1904); and Iconella albinervis (Tobias, 1964).

Category. Morphology.

albipennis

Etymology. The term albipennis comes from two Latin words, albi meaning white and pennis which means feather or wing. In taxonomy, the term albipennis describes a species with white wings.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Dolichogenidea albipennis (Nees, 1834); and Microplitis albipennis Abdinbekova, 1969.

Category. Morphology.

alejandromasisi

Etymology. The name refers to Alejandro Masis for his relentless efforts to administrate and protect the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles alejandromasisi Fernández-Triana, 2014; and Dolichogenidea alejandromasisi Fernández-Triana & Boudreault, 2019.

Category. People.

andamanensis

Etymology. The term andamanensis contains two parts, Andaman, the Andaman Islands, an archipelago in the Bay of Bengal between India and Myanmar, and the Latin suffix -ensis which means belonging to or of the place of. In taxonomy, andamanensis indicates that the species is native to the Andaman Islands.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Diolcogaster andamanensis Gupta & Fernández-Triana, 2015; and Fornicia andamanensis Sharma, 1984.

Category. Geography.

andydeansi

Etymology. The name honors Andrew (Andy) Robert Deans, an American entomologist, who has made exceptional contributions to the knowledge of Evaniidae (Hymenoptera) on a global scale. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Alphomelon andydeansi Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; Glyptapanteles andydeansi Arias-Penna, 2019; and Iconella andydeansi Fernández-Triana, 2013.

Category. People.

angustus

Etymology. The term angustus derives from the Latin verb ango which means to narrow, to constrict, or to tighten. In taxonomy, angustus refers to the narrow length of a particular morphological trait. Thus, the narrow areolation on the propodeum (in Apanteles Foerster) or a very narrow mesosoma and metasoma (in Choeras Mason).

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles angustus Liu & Chen, 2020; and Choeras angustus Song & Chen, 2014.

Category. Morphology.

areolaris

Etymology. The term areolaris comes from the Latin word areola which means small open space or little courtyard. In taxonomy, areolaris refers to a species that has a body part covered with areolate, a type of surface sculpturing.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Hypomicrogaster areolaris (Blanchard, 1947); and Microgaster areolaris Thomson, 1895.

Category. Morphology.

ashmeadi

Etymology. The name is a tribute to the American entomologist William Harris Ashmead (1855–1908), one of the most important hymenopterologist authorities from the 19^th century. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Diolcogaster ashmeadi Saeed, Austin & Dangerfield, 1999; and Glyptapanteles ashmeadi (Wilkinson, 1928).

Category. People.

aspersus

Etymology. The term aspersus is a Latin adjective that means sprinkled or sprayed with. In taxonomy, aspersus reflects the idea of something being sprinkled or scattered over a surface. In Apanteles, aspersus refers to the spines on the outer side of the third tibia as rather sparse while in Glyptapenteles Ashmead, refers to the widely dispersed distribution of the species.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles aspersus Liu & Chen, 2020; and Glyptapanteles aspersus Fagan-Jeffries, Bird & Austin, 2022.

Category. Other.

aurangabadensis

Etymology. The term aurangabadensis contains two parts, Aurangabad, an Indian city belonging to the Maharashtra state, and the Latin suffix -ensis which means belonging to or of the place of. In taxonomy, aurangabadensis indicates that the species was first discovered or described in the area around Aurangabad.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles aurangabadensis Rao & Chalikwar, 1970; and Diolcogaster aurangabadensis Fernández-Triana, 2019.

Category. Geography.

austini

Etymology. The name honors Andrew (Andy) Donald Austin, an Australian hymenopterologist for his outstanding contributions to the knowledge of Microgastrinae of Australia. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles austini Fagan-Jeffries & Bird, 2022; and Miropotes austini Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2014.

Category. People.

autographae

Etymology. The epithet autographae refers to the looper moth genus, Autographa Hübner (Noctuidae: Plusiinae), which is the herbivore host used by these microgastrine wasps.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Cotesia autographae (Muesebeck, 1921); and Microplitis autographae Muesebeck, 1922.

Category. Biology.

bageshri

Etymology. The term bageshri is likely a reference to the Indian classical music raga called Bageshri. The exact reason for this name choice is unclear, but it may be a nod to the Indian origins of the wasp species or to the sweet and soothing nature of the raga, which may reflect the behavior or appearance of the wasp.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Dolichogenidea bageshri Sathe, Inamdar & Dawale, 2003; and Microplitis bageshri Sathe, Inamdar & Dawale, 2003.

Category. Other.

Note. Both species are under the status of unavailable names (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

bakeri

Etymology. The name is dedicated to Charles Fuller Baker (1872–1927), an American entomologist, botanist, and agronomist who contributed greatly to natural science knowledge in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Diolcogaster bakeri (Muesebeck, 1922); and Dolichogenidea bakeri (Wilkinson, 1932).

Category. People.

balearica

Etymology. The word balearica refers to the Balearic Islands, a group of islands located in the western Mediterranean Sea.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Cotesia balearica Shaw & Colom, 2022; and Microgaster balearica Marshall, 1898.

Category. Geography.

basalis

Etymology. The word basalis derives from two Latin words, basis meaning foundation or base, and the suffix -alis which indicates related to or pertaining to. In taxonomy, basalis describes a species with a basal or fundamental form, structure, or behavior. In Microplitis, probably refers to the medial longitudinal groove in the basal of the first tergite while in Snellenius refers to white metasoma in lateral views toward the base.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Microplitis basalis (Bingham, 1906); and Snellenius basalis (Walker, 1874).

Category. Morphology.

bennetti

Etymology. The name refers to Andrew (Andy) Michael Reeve Bennett, a Canadian entomologist and one of the world’s authorities on ichneumonid wasps. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Deuterixys bennetti Whitfield, 1985; and Sendaphne bennetti Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2014.

Category. People.

bhairavi

Etymology. The term bhairavi comes from Bhairavi, a Hindu goddess whose name means terror or awe-inspiring. The term Bhairavi can also refer to the Hindustani classical music from the northern regions of India. It is a type of raga, a melodic framework for improvisation in Indian classical music. The exact reason for this name choice is unclear, but it may be a nod to the Indian origins of the wasp species (e.g., Cotesia bhairavi (Sathe & Inamdar, 1991)) that was collected in Sikkim, a state in northeastern India although the species is deposited in the collection of Shivaji University, Kolhapur (India). Another interpretation is that the term refers to the intense and powerful nature of the raga, which may reflect the behavior or appearance of the wasp.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Cotesia bhairavi (Sathe & Inamdar, 1991); and Parenion bhairavi Sathe, Inamdar & Dawale, 2003.

Category. Other.

Note. Parenion bhairavi Sathe, Inamdar & Dawale, 2003 is under the status of unavailable names (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

bicolor

Etymology. The term bicolor contains two Latin words, the prefix -bi which means two and the noun color which is a cognate of the English word. In taxonomy, bicolor is often used as an adjective to describe a species that has two distinct colors or color patterns on the body or specific body parts.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Dolichogenidea bicolor Song & Chen, 2004; Pholetesor bicolor (Nees, 1834); and Snellenius bicolor Shenefelt, 1968.

Category. Morphology.

brevivena

Etymology. The term brevivena contains two Latin words, brevi which means short and vena which means vein. In taxonomy, brevivena refers to a species with short veins.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles brevivena Liu & Chen, 2015; and Diolcogaster brevivena Zeng & Chen, 2011.

Category. Morphology.

broadi

Etymology. The name honors the British Gavin R. Broad, one of the world’s leading authorities of our time on the study of Ichneumonidae. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Dolichogenidea broadi Rousse, 2013; and Sendaphne broadi Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2014.

Category. People.

calixtomoragai

Etymology. The epithet refers to Calixto Moraga for his contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon calixtomoragai Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles calixtomoragai Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

canadensis

Etymology. The term canadensis consists of two words, Canada, a country in North America, and the Latin suffix -ensis which means belonging to or inhabiting. In taxonomy, canadensis refers to a species that is native to or found in Canada.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Clarkinella canadensis Mason, 1981; Iconella canadensis Fernández-Triana, 2013; and Microgaster canadensis Muesebeck, 1922.

Category. Geography.

capeki

Etymology. The name honors Miroslav Čapek (1927–2008), a Czech braconidologist from the 20^th century in appreciation of his relevant entomological contributions. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles capeki (Györfi, 1955); and Microplitis capeki Nixon, 1970.

Category. People.

carinatus

Etymology. The term carinatus derives from the Latin word carina which means keel or ridge. In taxonomy, carinatus describes a species that has a distinct ridge or keel on a specific body part such as mesosoma or metasoma.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles carinatus (Szépligeti, 1913); and Microplitis carinatus Song & Chen, 2008.

Category. Morphology.

carlosrodriguezi

Etymology. The name refers to Carlos Rodríguez in recognition of his tireless efforts with the Programa de Ecoturismo in the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles carlosrodriguezi Fernández-Triana, 2014; and Pseudapanteles carlosrodriguezi Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2014.

Category. People.

carolinacanoae

Etymology. The epithet refers to Carolina Cano for her contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -ae added to the term is a feminine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon carolinacanoae Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles carolinacanoae Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

cebes

Etymology. The epithet is probably dedicated to Cebes, an Ancient Greek philosopher from Thebes who was a disciple of Socrates.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles cebes Nixon, 1965; and Microplitis cebes Nixon, 1970.

Category. Other.

christerhanssoni

Etymology. The epithet honors the Swedish chalcidologist, Christer Hansson, whose work contributes to the knowledge of Eulophidae of the world. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon christerhanssoni Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Glyptapanteles christerhanssoni Arias-Penna, 2019.

Category. People.

concinnus

Etymology. The term concinnus derives from the Latin verb concinnare which means to make ready or to put in order. In taxonomy, concinnus describes a species that has a well-ordered or harmonious appearance, often about a morphological trait or coloration.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles concinnus Statz, 1938; and Glyptapanteles concinnus (Muesebeck, 1958).

Category. Morphology.

Note. Apanteles concinnus Statz, 1938 is a species only known from fossils (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

confusus

Etymology. The Latin word confusus means confused or mixed up. In taxonomy, confusus likely refers that initially, the species was unclear or confusing (referring to more or less merged second + third tergites), as is the case with many newly discovered Microgastrinae species.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Microplitis confusus Muesebeck, 1922; and Pholetesor confusus Liu & Chen, 2016.

Category. Morphology.

coxalis

Etymology. The term coxalis derives from two Latin words, coxa which means hip and the suffix -alis which means related to or pertaining to. In taxonomy, coxalis refers to a species whose coxa has a particularity either in size, color, or sculpturing.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles coxalis Szépligeti, 1911; and Diolcogaster coxalis (de Saeger, 1944).

Category. Morphology.

crassicornis

Etymology. The word crassicornis is made up of two Latin words, crassus which means thick or fat and cornis which means horn. In taxonomy, crassicornis describes a species whose antennae are thick or club-shaped that resemble horns.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles crassicornis (Provancher, 1886); and Microgaster crassicornis Ruthe, 1860.

Category. Morphology.

curticornis

Etymology. The term curticornis is composed of two Latin words, curtus which means short or truncated and cornis which means horn. In taxonomy, curticornis describes a species with short or truncated antennae that resemble horns.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Diolcogaster curticornis (Granger, 1949); and Venanides curticornis (Granger, 1949).

Category. Morphology.

delicata

Etymology. The Latin word delicata means pleasing, delightful, dainty, or fine. In taxonomy, delicata refers to the general appearance of the body which is delicate and slender.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Austrocotesia delicata Austin & Dangerfield, 1992; and Cotesia delicata (Howard, 1897).

Category. Morphology.

diniamartinezae

Etymology. The epithet refers to Dinia Martínez for her contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -ae added to the term is a feminine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon diniamartinezae Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles diniamartinezae Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

duvalierbricenoi

Etymology. The epithet refers to Duvalier Briceño for his contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon duvalierbricenoi Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles duvalierbricenoi Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

elegans

Etymology. The Latin word elegans means elegant or distinguished. In taxonomy, elegans describes a species whose general appearance is elegant, graceful, or refined.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Microgaster elegans Herrich-Schäffer, 1838; and Microplitis elegans Timon-David, 1944.

Category. Morphology.

Note. Microplitis elegans Timon-David, 1944 is a species only known from fossils (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

eliethcantillanoae

Etymology. The epithet refers to Elieth Cantillano for her contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -ae added to the term is a feminine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon eliethcantillanoae Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles eliethcantillanoae Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

epaphus

Etymology. There is no clear explanation of the species name, but it is assumed that corresponds to the butterfly Siproeta epaphus Latreille (Nymphalidae), the herbivore host used by these parasitoid wasps.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Choeras epaphus (Nixon, 1965); and Nyereria epaphus (de Saeger, 1944).

Category. Biology.

eros

Etymology. The Greek word eros refers to the god of love in Greek mythology. Its Roman counterpart is Cupido. In taxonomy, eros refers to the lepidopteran host, Luthrodes pandava Horsfield (Lycaenidae) commonly known as Plain’s cupid.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Dolichogenidea eros (Wilkinson, 1932); and Parapanteles eros Gupta, 2014.

Category. Biology.

erro

Etymology. The Latin word erro probably means to make a mistake, to err, or go astray. However, there is not a clear meaning or association in the etymology.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Diolcogaster erro (Nixon, 1965); and Microgaster erro Nixon, 1968.

Category. Other.

eupolis

Etymology. The Greek name eupolis likely means good city or well-city. The epithet may intend to refer to a specific location or city, but it is difficult to say for certain.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles eupolis Nixon, 1965; and Microgaster eupolis Nixon, 1968.

Category. Other.

felipechavarriai

Etymology. The name refers to Felipe Chavarría in recognition of his diligent efforts to understand the plant biology of the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles felipechavarriai Fernández-Triana, 2014; and Snellenius felipechavarriai Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2015.

Category. People.

feltiae

Etymology. The term feltiae refers to the moth genus, Feltia Walker (Noctuidae: Noctuinae) which is used as an herbivore host by these parasitoid wasps. The suffix -ae added to the term is a Latin feminine genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles feltiae Viereck, 1912; and Microplitis feltiae Muesebeck, 1922.

Category. Biology.

ferruginea

Etymology. The Latin word ferruginea derives from ferrugo which means rust. In taxonomy, ferruginea describes a species that has a reddish brown or rust-colored appearance or a particular morphological trait that resembles rust.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Cotesia ferruginea (Marshall, 1885); and Microgaster ferruginea Xu & He, 2000.

Category. Morphology.

flavipes

Etymology. The term flavipes derives from two Latin words, flavus which means yellow and pes which means foot. In taxonomy, flavipes describes a species with yellow-colored legs. In some cases, the name may refer to the entire organism having a yellow coloration, but it is most commonly used to describe a specific body part.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Chaoa flavipes Luo, You & Xiao, 2004; Cotesia flavipes Cameron, 1891; and Diolcogaster flavipes (Haliday, 1834).

Category. Morphology.

garygibsoni

Etymology. The name refers to Gary Alfred Peter Gibson, a Canadian expert in the systematics of chalcid parasitoid wasps (Chalcidoidea), especially the families Eupelmidae and Pteromalidae and functional and comparative morphology of Chalcidoidea and Hymenoptera. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles garygibsoni Fernández-Triana, 2014; and Glyptapanteles garygibsoni Arias-Penna, 2019.

Category. People.

ghesquierei

Etymology. The epithet honors Fernand Ghesquière (1879–1924), a Belgian braconidologist and naturalist who made significant contributions to the study of African insects at the end of the 19^th and beginning of the 20^th century. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles ghesquierei de Saeger, 1941; and Fornicia ghesquierei de Saeger, 1942.

Category. People.

gloriasihezarae

Etymology. The epithet refers to Gloria Sihezar for her contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -ae added to the term is a feminine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon gloriasihezarae Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles gloriasihezarae Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

grangeri

Etymology. The epithet is dedicated to Charles Granger, a French entomologist who started the laborious revision of braconid wasps of the Malagasy subregion. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Diolcogaster grangeri (Shenefelt, 1973); and Dodogaster grangeri Rousse, 2013.

Category. People.

guillermopereirai

Etymology. The epithet refers to Guillermo Pereira for his contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a feminine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon guillermopereirai Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles guillermopereirai Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

hazelcambroneroae

Etymology. The epithet refers to Hazel Cambronero for her contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -ae added to the term is a feminine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon hazelcambroneroae Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles hazelcambroneroae Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

hyphantriae

Etymology. The term hyphantriae is derived from the Greek words hyphantes which means weaver and tria which means three. The suffix -ae added to the term is a Latin feminine genitive. In taxonomy, hyphantriae refers to a moth genus, Hyphantria Harris (Erebidae), which is an herbivore host used by these parasitoid wasps.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Cotesia hyphantriae (Riley, 1887); and Microplitis hyphantriae Ashmead, 1898.

Category. Biology.

indica

Etymology. The Latin word indica derives from indicus which means of India. In taxonomy, indica refers to a species that is native to or has a significant presence in the Indian subcontinent. The name has been also used to describe morphological traits that are commonly found in organisms from India or the surrounding areas.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Apanteles indica Chougale, 2016; Cotesia indica Sathe & Rokade, 2005; and Diolcogaster indica (Wilkinson, 1927).

Category. Geography.

Note. Apanteles indica Chougale, 2016 is under the status of unavailable names (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

indicus

Etymology. The Latin word indicus means of India or belonging to India. In taxonomy, indicus refers to a species that is native to or has a significant presence in the Indian subcontinent.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Microplitis indicus Marsh, 1978; Parapanteles indicus (Bhatnagar, 1950); and Pholetesor indicus Ahmad, Ghramh & Pandey, 2020.

Category. Geography.

insularis

Etymology. The Latin word insularis derives from insula, which means island or of or belonging to an island. In taxonomy, insularis describes a species that is found exclusively or predominantly on islands. The epithet also associates the physical or ecological traits of islands themselves, such as insular climates or insular vegetation.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles insularis Muesebeck, 1921; and Diolcogaster insularis (Hedqvist, 1965).

Category. Geography.

isidrochaconi

Etymology. The epithet refers to Isidro Villegas in recognition of his diligent efforts on the Programa de Sectores for the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles isidrochaconi Fernández-Triana, 2014; and Snellenius isidrochaconi Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2015.

Category. People.

jamesi

Etymology. The epithet is dedicated to James Bryan Whitfield, an American braconidologist. He is one of the prestigious authorities on the taxonomy and phylogenomics of microgastrine parasitoid wasps and their coevolution with symbiotic polydnaviruses. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Jimwhitfieldius jamesi Fernández-Triana & Boudreault, 2018; and Microplitis jamesi Austin & Dangerfield, 1993.

Category. People.

jesusugaldei

Etymology. The epithet refers to Jesús Ugalde in recognition of his diligent efforts in the administration of the Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBio) in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles jesusugaldei Fernández-Triana, 2014; and Glyptapanteles jesusugaldei Arias-Penna, 2019.

Category. People.

jorgehernandezi

Etymology. The epithet is dedicated to Jorge Hernández in recognition of his diligent efforts to understand the plant biology of the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG), Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles jorgehernandezi Fernández-Triana, 2014; and Microplitis jorgehernandezi Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2015.

Category. People.

kasparyani

Etymology. The epithet honors the Russian entomologist Dmitri Rafaelievich Kasparyan, for his contributions to ichneumonid taxonomy. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Cotesia kasparyani (Tobias, 1976); and Diolcogaster kasparyani Kotenko, 2007.

Category. People.

keineraragoni

Etymology. The epithet refers to Keiner Aragón for his contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a feminine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon keineraragoni Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles keineraragoni Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

keralensis

Etymology. The term keralensis consists of two words, Kerala, a state on the Malabar coast of India, and the Latin suffix -ensis which means belonging to or inhabiting. Kerala comes from the Malayalam word Keralam which means land of coconuts, the place is known for its rich biodiversity and is home to a large number of native plants and animals. In taxonomy, keralensis describes a species that is native to or has a significant presence in Kerala.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Illidops keralensis (Narendran & Sumodan, 1992); and Philoplitis keralensis Ranjith & Fernández-Triana, 2019.

Category. Geography.

lacteus

Etymology. The Latin word lacteus means milky or white as milk. In taxonomy, lacteus describes a species that has a milky or white coloration or appearance.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles lacteus (Nees, 1834); and Microplitis lacteus Austin & Dangerfield, 1993.

Category. Morphology.

lamprosemae

Etymology. The epithet refers to the moth genus, Lamprosema Hübner (Crambidae), which is the herbivore host used by these parasitoid wasps. The suffix -ae added to the term is a Latin feminine genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles lamprosemae (Wilkinson, 1928); and Illidops lamprosemae (Ahmad, 2005).

Category. Biology.

longiantenna

Etymology. The term longiantenna contains two Latin words, longus which means long and antenna which means yard, sailyard, or pole. In taxonomy, longiantenna describes a species with relatively long antennae compared to other members of the same taxonomic rank.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles longiantenna Chen & Song, 2004; and Fornicia longiantenna Luo & You, 2008.

Category. Morphology.

longicalcar

Etymology. The term longicalcar integrates two Latin words, longus which means long and calcar which means spur. In taxonomy, longicalcar is often used to describe a species with elongated hind leg spurs or tarsal claws which are used for various purposes (e.g., defense, mating, or gripping surfaces).

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Dolichogenidea longicalcar (Thomson, 1895); and Microgaster longicalcar Xu & He, 2003.

Category. Morphology.

longivena

Etymology. The term longivena contains two Latin words, longus which means long and vena which means vein. In taxonomy, longivena describes a species with elongated veins, structures that help to support the delicate wing during flight.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Dolichogenidea longivena Liu & Chen, 2018; Glyptapanteles longivena Chen & Song, 2004; and Rasivalva longivena Song & Chen, 2004.

Category. Morphology.

loretta

Etymology. The term loretta is a female given name of Italian origin. The name derives from the Latin word laurus which means laurel. The laurel plant was a symbol of victory, honor, or fame. In taxonomy, loretta is used to honor loved ones.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Choeras loretta (Nixon, 1965); and Distatrix loretta Grinter, 2009.

Category. People.

lunata

Etymology. The Latin word lunata derives from luna which means moon, the celestial body that has a crescent shape during certain phases of its cycle. In taxonomy, lunata describes morphological traits that have a curved or crescent shape, such as wings or antennae.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Apanteles lunata Song & Chen, 2004; Cotesia lunata (Packard, 1881); and Dolichogenidea lunata Liu & Chen, 2019.

Category. Morphology.

malshri

Etymology. The term malshri could be a reference to a person’s name based on the suffix -i, which is a masculine Latin genitive. It could also refer to a Hindu name for a woman. Malshri in Sanskrit means wonderful garland. The information is incomplete, so it is difficult to determine the exact origin.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Cotesia malshri (Sathe & Inamdar, 1991); and Glyptapanteles malshri Sathe, Inamdar & Dawale, 2003.

Category. People.

Note. Glyptapanteles malshri Sathe, Inamdar & Dawale, 2003 is under the status of unavailable names (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

manuelriosi

Etymology. The epithet refers to Manuel Ríos for his contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon manuelriosi Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles manuelriosi Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

masneri

Etymology. The epithet honours Lubomír (Lubo) Masner, a prominent Canadian entomologist, whose work contributes to the understanding of the taxonomy and systematics of the order Hymenoptera. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Microplitis masneri Austin & Dangerfield, 1993; Philoplitis masneri Fernández-Triana & Goulet, 2009; and Pholetesor masneri (Mason, 1981).

Category. People.

masoni

Etymology. The epithet honors the Canadian William Richardson Miles Mason (1921–1991), one of the greatest pioneers in the study of the Microgastrinae of the 20^th century. His legacy is immense. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in nine genera: Apanteles masoni Chen & Song, 2004; Diolcogaster masoni Saeed, Austin & Dangerfield, 1999; Dolichogenidea masoni Pandey, Ahmad, Haider & Shujauddin, 2005; Hypomicrogaster masoni Valerio, 2015; Parapanteles masoni Austin & Dangerfield, 1992; Pholetesor masoni Whitfield, 2006; Prasmodon masoni Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2014; Sathon masoni Williams, 1988; and Wilkinsonellus masoni Long & van Achterberg, 2011.

Category. People.

medon

Etymology. The Greek word medon means ruler or lord. In taxonomy, medon denotes a dominant, superior, or distinctive morphological trait such as larger size.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles medon Nixon, 1965; and Diolcogaster medon (Nixon, 1965).

Category. Morphology.

memorata

Etymology. The term memorata derives from the Latin word memoratus which means remembered or noted. In taxonomy, memorata likely emphasizes a notable or remarkable morphological trait present in the species.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Iconella memorata Kotenko, 2007; and Microgaster memorata Papp, 1971.

Category. Morphology.

merata

Etymology. The word Latin adjective merata likely means earned or deserved. However, merate, meratus is also an Australian aboriginal word that means naked. In Diolcogaster, merata refers to the tergite 3 which does not form a carapace with tergites 1 and 2.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Diolcogaster merata Saeed, Austin & Dangerfield, 1999; and Iconella merata (Kotenko, 1981).

Category. Morphology.

mikepoguei

Etymology. The epithet honors Michael (Mike) G. Pogue, an American lepidopterist. His work has been widely recognized and respected within the lepidopterist community, making his name synonymous with excellence. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles mikepoguei Arias-Penna, 2019; and Prasmodon mikepoguei Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2014.

Category. People.

mikesharkeyi

Etymology. The epithet honors the American braconidologist, Michael (Mike) Joseph Sharkey, whose work contributes to the knowledge of Braconidae of the world. He is a distinguished hymenopterologist and his work is truly remarkable. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon mikesharkeyi Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Glyptapanteles mikesharkeyi Arias-Penna, 2019.

Category. People.

minor

Etymology. The Latin adjective minor means smaller or lesser. In taxonomy, minor describes a species with a small body size.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles minor Fahringer, 1938; and Glyptapanteles minor Ashmead, 1906.

Category. Morphology.

montanus

Etymology. The Latin adjective montanus derives from the noun mons, montis which means mountain. In taxonomy, montanus indicates that the species is of the mountains or has been reported at high altitudes.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles montanus de Saeger, 1944; and Microplitis montanus Muesebeck, 1922.

Category. Geography.

Note. Apanteles montanus de Saeger, 1944 is under the status of species inquirendae (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

narendrani

Etymology. The epithet honors Thekke Curuppathe Narendran (1944–2013), an Indian entomologist, in recognition of his immense contributions to parasitic Hymenoptera. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Diolcogaster narendrani Rema & Sheeba, 2004; Microplitis narendrani Ranjith & Nasser, 2015; and Neoclarkinella narendrani Veena, 2014.

Category. People.

newguineaensis

Etymology. The term newguineaensis contains two words, New Guinea, the world’s second-largest island located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, and the Latin suffix -ensis which means belonging to or inhabiting. In taxonomy, newguineaensis refers to a species that is native to or was first discovered in New Guinea.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Diolcogaster newguineaensis Saeed, Austin & Dangerfield, 1999; and Microplitis newguineaensis Austin & Dangerfield, 1993.

Category. Geography.

niger

Etymology. The Latin word niger means black. In taxonomy, niger, nigra, nigrum are used to describe a species with black or dark coloration on the whole body or in a specific morphological trait.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Dolichogenidea niger (Muesebeck, 1921); and Jenopappius niger (de Saeger, 1944).

Category. Morphology.

Note. The original species name Apanteles niger Muesebeck, 1921, was transferred to Dolichogenidea by Fernández-Triana et al. (2020). The specific epithet, niger, was changed to nigra to comply with gender agreement as the gender of Dolichogenidea is feminine (Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

nigricornis

Etymology. The term nigricornis contains two Latin words, niger which translates to black and cornu which means horn. In taxonomy, nigricornis refers to the black coloration of the antennae or other horn-like structures.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles nigricornis (Muesebeck, 1921); and Microgaster nigricornis Motschoulsky, 1863.

Category. Morphology.

Note. Microgaster nigricornis Motschoulsky, 1863 is under the status of species inquirendae (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

nigritus

Etymology. The Latin term nigritus means blackened or blackish. In taxonomy, as well as the epithets niger, nigritus describe a species with black or dark coloration on the whole body or in a specific morphological trait.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Hygroplitis nigritus Luo & You, 2005; and Microplitis nigritus Muesebeck, 1922.

Category. Morphology.

nixoni

Etymology. The epithet honors the British entomologist Gilbert Edward James Nixon, one of the most recognized and illustrious experts of Microgastrinae. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in five genera: Apanteles nixoni Song, 2002; Diolcogaster nixoni Saeed, Austin & Dangerfield, 1999; Microgaster nixoni Austin & Dangerfield, 1992; Prasmodon nixoni Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2014; and Semionis nixoni Tobias, 1987.

Category. People.

Note. Semionis nixoni Tobias, 1987 is a species only known from fossils (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

oculatus

Etymology. The Latin adjective oculatus means having eyes or with eyes. In taxonomy, oculatus describes a species with distinctive eye markings or coloration around the eyes.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles oculatus Tobias, 1967; and Palaeomicrogaster oculatus Belokobylskij, 2014.

Category. Morphology.

Note. Palaeomicrogaster oculatus Belokobylskij, 2014 is a species only known from fossils (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

orientalis

Etymology. The term orientalis comes from the Latin word oriens which means east or rising. In taxonomy, orientalis indicates a species that is native to the eastern region of its distribution or was originally described from specimens collected in the East.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in six genera: Apanteles orientalis Szépligeti, 1913; Buluka orientalis Chou, 1985; Cotesia orientalis Chalikwar & Nikam, 1984; Diolcogaster orientalis (Rao & Chalikwar, 1970); Miropotes orientalis Fernández-Triana & van Achterberg, 2014; and Tobleronius orientalis Fernández-Triana & Boudreault, 2018.

Category. Geography.

oryzae

Etymology. The term oryzae derives from Oryza L., (Poaceae), the genus to which the rice belongs. The suffix -ae added to the term is a Latin feminine genitive. Many adult microgastrine species have been associated with rice plants or rice grains.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Dolichogenidea oryzae Bhoje & Sathe, 2002; and Exoryza oryzae (Walker, 1994).

Category. Other.

Note. Dolichogenidea oryzae Bhoje & Sathe, 2002 is under the status of unavailable name (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

osvaldoespinozai

Etymology. The epithet refers to Osvaldo Espinoza for his contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon osvaldoespinozai Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles osvaldoespinozai Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

pappi

Etymology. The name honors the Hungarian entomologist Jenő Papp (1933–2017) in recognition of his significant contributions to the knowledge of Braconidae of the world, and his work on Palearctic Microgastrinae. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Choeras pappi Narendran, 1998; and Cotesia pappi Inanç, 2002.

Category. People.

Note. Choeras pappi Narendran, 1998 is under the status of species inquirendae (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

paranaensis

Etymology. The term paranaensis contains two words, Paraná, of the Paraná River in South America, which runs through Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina, and the Latin suffix -ensis which means belonging to or inhabiting. In taxonomy, paranaensis refers to a species that is found in or near the Paraná River region.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Illidops paranaensis Penteado-Dias & Scatolini, 2000; and Sendaphne paranaensis Scatolini & Penteado-Dias, 1999.

Category. Geography.

peckorum

Etymology. The term peckorum contains two words, Peck honors the married couple Stewart Blaine Peck and Jarmila Kukalová-Peck, tireless insect collectors during the last 30+ years, their contributions are significant to the study of the insect fauna of southern Florida, USA. And the suffix -orum which indicates the genitive plural, is typically used to honor a group of people, such as a family or a team of researchers.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Keylimepie peckorum Fernández-Triana, 2016; and Papanteles peckorum Mason, 1981.

Category. People.

peruensis

Etymology. The term peruensis contains two words, Peru, a country in South America, and the Latin suffix -ensis which means belonging to or inhabiting. In taxonomy, peruensis indicates that the species is from Peru.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Snellenius peruensis Shenefelt, 1968; and Venanus peruensis Mason, 1981.

Category. Geography.

petronariosae

Etymology. The epithet refers to Petrona Ríos for her contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -ae added to the term is a feminine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon petronariosae Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles petronariosae Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

phildevriesi

Etymology. The epithet honors Philip (Phil) James DeVries, an American tropical ecologist, for his diligent contributions to this field. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles phildevriesi Arias-Penna, 2019; and Snellenius phildevriesi Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2015.

Category. People.

philippinensis

Etymology. The term philippinensis contains two words, the Philippine, an archipelagic country in southeast Asia, and the Latin suffix -ensis which means belonging to or inhabiting. In taxonomy, philippinensis refers to a species that is native or discovered in the Philippines.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles philippinensis (Ashmead, 1904); and Snellenius philippinensis (Ashmead, 1904).

Category. Geography.

phthorimaeae

Etymology. The term phthorimaeae contains two words, phthorima a Greek word that means destruction or ruin, and the Latin suffix -ae, a feminine genitive. In taxonomy, Phthorimaea Meyrick refers to a gelechiid moth genus that is used as an herbivore host by these wasps and that may cause potential damage to their food plants.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Dolichogenidea phthorimaeae (Muesebeck, 1921); and Microgaster phthorimaeae Muesebeck, 1922.

Category. Biology.

pinicola

Etymology. The term pinicola contains two Latin words, pinus which means pine and cola which means inhabitant of or dweller. In taxonomy, pinicola refers to a species that is commonly associated with pine trees or dwelling in pines.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles pinicola (Lyle, 1917); and Venanus pinicola Mason, 1981.

Category. Biology.

prodeniae

Etymology. The term prodeniae contains two words, Prodenia Guenée, a noctuid moth genus, (currently, is a synonym of Spodoptera Guenée), and the Latin suffix -ae, a feminine genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Dolichogenidea prodeniae (Viereck, 1912); and Microplitis prodeniae Rao & Kurian, 1950.

Category. Biology.

punctata

Etymology. The Latin word punctata means spotted or dotted. In taxonomy, punctata refers to a species that has visible dots or spots or a specific type of surface sculpturing (punctate) on its body.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Diolcogaster punctata (Rao & Chalikwar, 1976); and Neoclarkinella punctata Ahmad, Pandey, Haider & Shujauddin, 2005.

Category. Morphology.

pyrene

Etymology. The epithet probably refers to the butterfly species, Ixias pyrene Linnaeus (Pieridae) which is used as the herbivore host by these wasps. However, it is necessary to confirm the etymology.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Diolcogaster pyrene (Nixon, 1965); and Iconella pyrene (Nixon, 1965).

Category. Biology.

randallgarciai

Etymology. The epithet is dedicated to Randall García in recognition of his key role in the founding of the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) and subsequent diligent efforts in the administration of the Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBio) in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles randallgarciai Fernández-Triana, 2014; and Venanus randallgarciai Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2014.

Category. People.

rarus

Etymology. The Latin adjective rarus means rare or uncommon. In taxonomy, rarus indicates a species that is rare or has a limited distribution.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Parapanteles rarus Valerio & Whitfield, 2009; and Semionis rarus Nixon, 1965.

Category. Other.

ricardocaleroi

Etymology. The epithet refers to Ricardo Calero for his contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon ricardocaleroi Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles ricardocaleroi Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

robertoespinozai

Etymology. The epithet is dedicated to Roberto Espinoza in recognition of his diligent efforts for the Programa de Parataxónomos and the plant inventory of the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG), Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles robertoespinozai Fernández-Triana, 2014; and Snellenius robertoespinozai Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2015.

Category. People.

rodrigogamezi

Etymology. The epithet honors Rodrigo Gámez in recognition of his enormous efforts in support of founding the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG), and founding and directing the Instituto Nacional de Biodiversity (INBio) in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles rodrigogamezi Fernández-Triana, 2014; and Pseudapanteles rodrigogamezi Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2014.

Category. People.

rogerblancoi

Etymology. The epithet is dedicated to Roger Blanco in recognition of his diligent efforts for the Programa de Investigacion and administration of the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Apanteles rogerblancoi Fernández-Triana, 2014; Dolichogenidea rogerblancoi Fernández-Triana & Boudreault, 2019; and Sendaphne rogerblancoi Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2014.

Category. People.

ronaldzunigai

Etymology. The epithet refers to Ronald Zúñiga in recognition of his diligent efforts for the Programa de Parataxónomos of the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) and Hymenoptera curatorial taxonomy for Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBio) in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles ronaldzunigai Fernández-Triana, 2014; and Glyptapanteles ronaldzunigai Arias-Penna, 2019.

Category. People.

rostermoragai

Etymology. The epithet refers to Roster Moraga for his contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon rostermoragai Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles rostermoragai Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

ruficoxis

Etymology. The term ruficoxis contains two Latin words, rufus which means red or reddish and coxa which means hip or thigh. In taxonomy, ruficoxis refers to the reddish coloration of the coxa.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Cotesia ruficoxis (Hedwig, 1962); and Microgaster ruficoxis Ruthe, 1858.

Category. Morphology.

Note. Microgaster ruficoxis Ruthe, 1858 is under the status of species inquirendae (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

rufipes

Etymology. The term rufipes contains two Latin words, rufus which means red and pes which means foot. In taxonomy, rufipes describe a species with red-colored legs.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Microgaster rufipes Nees, 1834; and Microplitis rufipes Dutu-Lacatusu, 1961.

Category. Morphology.

rufithorax

Etymology. The term rufithorax contains two Latin words, rufus which means red or reddish, and thorax which means chest. In taxonomy, rufithorax refers to a species with a reddish-coloured metasoma or thorax.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles rufithorax Hedqvist, 1965; and Diolcogaster rufithorax (Granger, 1949).

Category. Morphology.

rufiventris

Etymology. The term rufiventris derives from two Latin words, rufus which means reddish and venter which means abdomen, belly, or stomach. In taxonomy, rufiventris is commonly used to describe a species with a reddish-colored abdomen, metasoma, or ventral side.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Cotesia rufiventris (Bingham, 1906); and Microplitis rufiventris Kokujev, 1914.

Category. Morphology.

rugosa

Etymology. The Latin word rugosa means wrinkled or rough. In taxonomy, rugosa describes a species that exhibits a specific type of surface sculpturing (rugose) on the body or body part, meaning a wrinkled appearance.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Cotesia rugosa (Szépligeti, 1914); Hypomicrogaster rugosa Valerio, 2015; and Rasivalva rugosa (Muesebeck, 1922).

Category. Morphology.

rugulosus

Etymology. The term rugulosus is a Latin adjective that means wrinkled or rugose and derives from the noun ruga which means a wrinkle. In taxonomy, rugulosus describes a species with a body or a body part showing a specific type of surface sculpturing (rugulose). In other words, an appearance of roughness or wrinkledness.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Choeras rugulosus Song & Chen, 2014; and Hygroplitis rugulosus (Nees, 1834).

Category. Morphology.

schizurae

Etymology. The term schizurae refers to a notodontid moth genus, Schizura Doubleday (currently a synonym of Coelodasys Packard). The suffix -ae added to the term is a Latin feminine genitive. In taxonomy, schizurae refers to the herbivore host used by these wasps.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Cotesia schizurae (Ashmead, 1898); and Diolcogaster schizurae (Muesebeck, 1922).

Category. Biology.

scottmilleri

Etymology. The epithet honors Scott Everett Miller, an American entomologist for his pioneering research in the systematics of Lepidoptera (moths); biogeography of the Pacific Basin, New Guinea, and Africa; and plant-insect community ecology. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles scottmilleri Arias-Penna, 2019; and Prasmodon scottmilleri Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, 2014.

Category. People.

sergioriosi

Etymology. The epithet refers to Sergio Ríos for his contributions to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in the Programa de Parataxónomos in Costa Rica (Central America). The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alphomelon sergioriosi Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; and Apanteles sergioriosi Fernández-Triana, 2014.

Category. People.

seyrigi

Etymology. The epithet refers to André Seyrig, a French entomologist for his groundbreaking work on the taxonomy of Hymenoptera. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Apanteles seyrigi Wilkinson, 1936; Diolcogaster seyrigi (Granger, 1949); and Fornicia seyrigi Granger, 1949.

Category. People.

shivranginii

Etymology. The term shivranginii possibly refers to Shivaranjani, a Hindustani classical raga (melodic mode) in Indian classical music. The Latin suffix -i added also suggests that the term refers to a male person. Another possibility is that the epithet has some local or personal significance. Unfortunately, no information was available in the original description or subsequent literature.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Parapanteles shivranginii Sathe & Ingawale, 1989; and Protomicroplitis shivrangini Sathe, Inamdar & Dawale, 2003.

Category. People.

Note. Protomicroplitis shivranginii Sathe, Inamdar & Dawale, 2003 is under the status of unavailable names (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

shrii

Etymology. The term shrii refers to the Sanskrit word Shri which is often used as a prefix to convey respect or reverence, equivalent to the English Mr. or Ms. It is often used as an honorific title for deities, holy persons, and respected leaders.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles shrii Sathe & Ingawale, 1995; and Cotesia shrii Sathe, Ingawale & Bhosale, 1994.

Category. Other.

Note. Apanteles shrii Sathe & Ingawale, 1995 is under the status of species inquirendae (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

siderion

Etymology. The term siderion comes from the Greek word sideros which means iron. In taxonomy, siderion describes a species that is associated with iron-rich environments or exhibits metallic coloration resembling iron.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles siderion (Nixon, 1965); and Hypomicrogaster siderion Valerio, 2015.

Category. Morphology.

similis

Etymology. The Latin word similis means similar or like. In taxonomy, similis indicates a species that is closely related to another in appearance or behavior.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Microplitis similis Lyle, 1921; and Snellenius similis Long & van Achterberg, 2013.

Category. Other.

spodopterae

Etymology. The epithet spodopterae refers to a moth genus, Spodoptera Guenée (Noctuidae), which is used as the herbivore host by these parasitoid wasps. In turn, Spodoptera derives from the Greek word spodos meaning ash wood, and the Latin suffix -ptera, which means winged. The suffix -ae added to the term is a Latin feminine genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles spodopterae Ahmad, 2009; and Microplitis spodopterae Rao & Kurian, 1950.

Category. Biology.

striatus

Etymology. The Latin term striatus derives from the verb strio which means to mark with lines. In taxonomy, striatus describes a species with stripes or lines on their bodies or appendages.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Keylimepie striatus (Muesebeck, 1922); Philoplitis striatus Fernández-Triana & Goulet, 2009; and Wilkinsonellus striatus Austin & Dangerfield, 1992.

Category. Morphology.

subcamilla

Etymology. The term subcamilla contains two Latin words, the prefix -sub which means below or under, and Camilla, a character that appears in the Aeneid, an epic poem written by Virgil.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles subcamilla Long, 2007; and Iconella subcamilla (Tobias, 1976).

Category. Other.

sunflowari

Etymology. The term sunflowari contains two words, sunflower, the common name of the genus Helianthus L. (Asteraceae), and the suffix -i, an adjectival ending used to form species names. In taxonomy, sunflowari refers to the food plant of these parasitoid wasps.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Cotesia sunflowari Sathe & Bhoje, 2000; and Dolichogenidea sunflowari Sathe & Bhoje, 2000.

Category. Other.

Note. Both species are under the status of unavailable names (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020).

szelenyii

Etymology. The word refers to Gusztáv Szelényi (1904–1982), a Hungarian zoologist and entomologist from the 20^th century for his outstanding contributions. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Dolichogenidea szelenyii (Papp, 1972); and Microgaster szelenyii Papp, 1974.

Category. People.

taiwanensis

Etymology. The term taiwanensis contains two parts, Taiwan (officially the Republic of China), a country in East Asia, and the Latin suffix -ensis which means belonging to or of the place of. In taxonomy, taiwanensis refers to a species that was first identified or discovered in Taiwan or is endemic to Taiwan.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Buluka taiwanensis Austin, 1989; Dolichogenidea taiwanensis (Sonan, 1942); and Pholetesor taiwanensis Liu & Chen, 2016.

Category. Geography.

taylori

Etymology. The term taylori probably refers to Taylor, a surname of English and Scottish origin, which is one of the most common surnames in English-speaking countries. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Glyptapanteles taylori (Wilkinson, 1928); and Microplitis taylori Austin & Dangerfield, 1993.

Category. People.

testacea

Etymology. The term testaceous comes from the Latin word testa which means a piece of burned clay, a shell, or a potsherd. In taxonomy, testaceous refers to the dull, brick-red color of fired clay or terracotta, and later came to refer to any of the several pale colors of bricks. Over time, the term has been used to describe a range of colors, from pale pink to pale brown, which resemble the color of fired clay.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Cotesia testacea Fujie, Shimizu & Fernández-Triana, 2018; and Dolichogenidea testacea Liu & Chen, 2018.

Category. Morphology.

thoseae

Etymology. The term thoseae refers to a moth genus, Thosea Walker (Limacodidae), which is used as an herbivore host by these parasitoid wasps. The suffix -ae added to the term is a Latin feminine genitive. The genus name Thosea presumably derives from the Greek word thos, which means a run, a course, or a career, possibly about the way the caterpillar moves like slugs or snails.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Fornicia thoseae Wilkinson, 1930; and Glyptapanteles thoseae (Wilkinson, 1934).

Category. Biology.

tobiasi

Etymology. The epithet honors Vladimir Ivanovich Tobias (1929–2011), a Russian hymenopterologist, for his pioneering work on the systematics of Braconidae. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Dolichogenidea tobiasi (Balevski, 1980); Microplitis tobiasi Kotenko, 2007; and Wilkinsonellus tobiasi Long, 2007.

Category. People.

townesi

Etymology. The epithet is dedicated to Henry Keith Townes, an American entomologist, for his significant contributions to our understanding of the family Ichneumonidae. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Apanteles townesi Nixon, 1965; and Buluka townesi Austin, 1989.

Category. People.

typhon

Etymology. The Greek word typhon refers to Typhon (also Typhoeus, Typhaon, Thyphos), a giant serpentine monstrous and the deadliest creature in Greek mythology known as the Father of All Monsters. Typhon probably reflects the fiery nature and the destructive power of these parasitoids attacking the pests.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Alloplitis typhon Nixon, 1965; and Promicrogaster typhon (Nixon, 1965)

Category. Other.

urios

Etymology. There is no specific information available on the origin of the term urios. Presumably, the term urios has the epithet apertus which means open, obvious, or uncover. Another possibility is that the word urios comes from the Messapic language, an extinct Indo-European Paleo-Balkanic language of the southeastern Italian Peninsula, that means doors.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Diolcogaster urios (Nixon, 1965); and Glyptapanteles urios Kotenko, 2007.

Category. Other.

Note. Glyptapanteles urios Kotenko, 2007 is under the status of Nomina nuda (see more detail in Fernández-Triana et al. 2020). Other.

variabilis

Etymology. The term variabilis derives from the Latin word varius which means varying or diverse. In taxonomy, variabilis describes a species that exhibits significant variation in its morphological traits.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Kiwigaster variabilis Fernández-Triana & Ward, 2011; and Pholetesor variabilis Whitfield, 2006.

Category. Morphology.

varicolor

Etymology. The term varicolor contains two Latin words, varius which means diverse or varied and color which means color. In taxonomy, varicolor describes a species with variable or changing colors.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Choeras varicolor Song & Chen, 2014; and Microplitis varicolor Viereck, 1917.

Category. Morphology.

vietnamensis

Etymology. The term vietnamensis contains two words, Vietnam, a country in Southeast Asia, and the Latin suffix -ensis which means belonging to or inhabiting. In taxonomy, vietnamensis indicates a species that is native to Vietnam.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Paroplitis vietnamensis van Achterberg & Fernández-Triana, 2013; and Ungunicus vietnamensis Fernández-Triana & Boudreault, 2018.

Category. Geography.

vitobiasi

Etymology. The epithet is dedicated to Vladimir Ivanovich Tobias (the first two letters (vi) refer to his two names), a Russian hymenopterologist, for his pioneering work on the systematics of Braconidae. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Illidops vitobiasi Kotenko, 2004; and Microplitis vitobiasi Fernández-Triana, 2019.

Category. People.

wittei

Etymology. The epithet honors Gaston François de Witte, a Belgian herpetologist, who led the expedition to Africa during which the wasps-type series were collected. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Diolcogaster wittei (de Saeger, 1944); and Dolichogenidea wittei (de Saeger, 1944).

Category. People.

yanayacuensis

Etymology. The term yanayacuensis contains two words, Yanayacu, a Biological Station and Center for Creative Studies, an area with 100 hectares in the cloud forest of Ecuador (South America), and the Latin suffix -ensis which means belonging to or of the place of.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Alphomelon yanayacuensis Fernández-Triana & Shimbori, 2023; Glyptapanteles yanayacuensis Arias-Penna, 2019; and Venanus yanayacuensis Arias-Penna & Whitfield, 2011.

Category. Geography.

yeimycedenoae

Etymology. The epithet is dedicated to Yeimy Cedeño Solis in recognition of her management of the Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Ostional in the Área de Conservación Tempisqué (ACT), Costa Rica (Central America).

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Dolichogenidea yeimycedenoae Fernández-Triana & Boudreault, 2019; and Exoryza yeimycedenoae Fernández-Triana, 2016.

Category. People.

yunnanensis

Etymology. The term yunnanensis contains two words, Yunnan, a landlocked province in the southwest of China, and the Latin suffix -ensis which means belonging to or of the place of. In taxonomy, yunnaensis refers to a species native to Yunnan.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in three genera: Choeras yunnanensis Song & Chen, 2014; Microgaster yunnanensis Xu & He, 1999; and Protapanteles yunnanensis (You & Xiong, 1987).

Category. Geography.

zhaoi

Etymology. The term zhaoi refers to Zhao, the most traditional surname in the Chinese language. The suffix -i added to the term is a masculine Latin genitive. In taxonomy, zhaoi possibly honors a male Chinese entomologist.

Taxa. The epithet has been used in two genera: Microgaster zhaoi Xu & He, 1997; and Microplitis zhaoi Xu & He, 2000.

Category. People.

Discussion

Within the subfamily Microgastrinae, the level of repetition of specific epithets was low. This indicates that there is a high degree of originality by the descriptors at the time of naming a new species. In other words, the authors have designated an original specific epithet for each new species they describe. Reviewing the taxonomic history, the approaches in species naming within the subfamily follow the traditional taxonomy practices, most epithets refer mainly to external morphological traits (morphology) and species distribution (geography). Nevertheless, the use of people’s names has significantly increased in the 20^th century (e.g., Guedes et al. 2023), although historically, a substantial portion of specific epithets was also attributed to people. These names primarily provide a way to pay homage to collectors and scientists. These are the cases of the Canadian William RM Mason and the English Gilbert EJ Nixon. They are among the most prominent entomologists whose contributions laid the foundation of knowledge of the subfamily Microgastrinae (Fig. 4); Mason in the Nearctic Region and Nixon in the Palearctic Region. Their influence has endured to the present day and this explains why the specific epithets masoni and nixoni are among the most repeated.

Figure 4.

Photographs of the prominent entomologist, whose names have been chosen multiple times to name species of Microgastrinae (Hymenoptera, Braconidae) A Cornelis (Kees) van Achterberg (Courtesy of Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, Netherlands) B Lubomír Masner (Credit: Carolyn Trietsch) C William Richardson Miles Mason (Courtesy of Canadian National Collection of Insects, Arachnids and Nematodes (CNC) of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa) D Thekke Curuppathe Narendran (Courtesy of Indian Academy of Sciences, Bengaluru) E Gilbert Edward James Nixon (based on an edited photo from Huddleston 1988) F Vladimir Ivanovich Tobias (based on an edited photo from Belokobylskij and Sharkey 2011).

In recent years, the use of etymologies to pay tribute to artists, celebrities, sportsmen, politicians, or even loved ones has been striking in several taxonomic groups. However, within Microgastrinae, etymologies are mainly addressed to people who have had direct involvement in recent long-term projects. Those projects form an intricate network encompassing technicians (e.g., collectors, database managers, parataxonomists) and specialists (e.g., botanist, ecologist, environmentalist, geneticist, hymenopterologist, lepidopterologist) whose collaboration has been immortalized in the names of the described species (e.g., Pseudapanteles laurachinchillae Fernández-Triana & Whitfield, in Fernández-Triana et al. 2014). Some of those collaborative collecting efforts have been developed in Central America (in northwestern Costa Rica), South America (Colombia, the Eastern Andes in Ecuador), Asia (Iran, Philippines), and Pacific Ocean islands (Fiji) among others.

The presence of the largest specific epithets in the morphology, people, and geography categories is partly explained by the use of compound words. In these three categories, most of the specific epithets are created by linking two words. Thus, in morphology, the use of a noun (referring to the structure) + the adjective is frequent; to honor people, the use of the name + the surname is added most of the time, and for geography, a noun (place) + the suffix -ensis is used regularly.

It is well known that the Achilles’ heel in the subfamily Microgastrinae is the lack of a sound phylogeny. However, another vulnerability is the deficiency of natural history knowledge (e.g., both lepidopteran hosts and food plants). The insufficiency of biological information could partly explain why the biology category is the one with the lowest number of species with repeated specific epithets (26 species out of 303).

It is important to acknowledge that these aforementioned conclusions are confined to the scope of identical specific epithets and the outcomes derived from the present study, and thus do not encompass the entirety of species belonging to this subfamily.

Recommendations

The taxonomist’s creativity in conceiving a specific epithet is inspirational, and it prompts us to reflect on how scientific knowledge is communicated. Taxonomic confusion increases when a specific epithet is repeated. For that reason, it is important to reduce it as much as possible. In essence, the recurrence of specific epithets that are identical and initially described in different genera does not pose a particular issue and the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature accommodates the admissibility of numerous instances where species names are identical, as per its provisions. The sole concern arises when a species is transferred to another genus that already bears the same specific name, resulting in the emergence of two homonymous names (Articles 57–60). Such instances lead to an increase in the number of homonyms and the subsequent proliferation of new names within the taxa. It should be noted that the concept homonym established by the ICZN is followed here and not other alternative terms such as asthenomonym (secondary homonym), and hadromonym (primary homonym), known as subcategories of homonym, proposed by Linz Zoological Committee (LZC: https://skosmos.loterre.fr/th63/en/) (Dubois 2011).

As shown in Fig. 5, there is one potential scenario for consideration of transferring Pholetesor masoni to Parapanteles based on the existing evidence (Fernández-Triana et al. 2020). Should this nomenclatural change take place, it would lead to homonymy, necessitating the replacement of the epithet masoni with a new name. As a precautionary measure, it is advisable to refrain from assigning a species name that duplicates one already present in a closely related genus, considering the potential future scenario of the two genera being recognized as synonymous and/or homonyms. The prevalence of identical specific epithets within certain taxonomic groups presents a modest inconvenience as it may lead to potential confusion among taxonomists. Nonetheless, from our perspective, this issue is relatively minor in Microgastrinae and can be effectively managed without significant ramifications. Hence, the matter of species name registration within a unified database (e.g., TaxonWorks: https://taxonworks.org) offers a promising opportunity for taxonomists. Simple actions, such as verifying the provisional specific epithet across all available information (consolidated database and/or original descriptions) can prevent epithet replication and ensure accurate representation of the species under description. While the overall occurrence of duplicated specific epithets in the entire subfamily is minimal, it is advised to persist in avoiding duplicate names and minimizing identical epithets. To ensure the utmost clarity in nomenclature, researchers must endeavor to choose unique and distinctive specific epithets.

Figure 5.

A microgastrine parasitoid wasp, with a potential identity crisis (e.g., the specific epithet, masoni), carrying a backpack, is observed studying a signpost with arrows pointing to different close genera. The parasitoid wasp has a befuddled expression as she contemplates which path to take. The Canadian artist, Devon Henderson, sketched the cartoon in response to our request (Waspaholic Comics).

Here are some recommendations to enhance the accuracy of species datasets and minimize redundances:

Taxonomic authorities should consider adopting a standardized nomenclature for species names to prevent the use of the same specific epithets for species within the same group.
Researchers should verify and reconcile data sources to ensure accuracy, and timeliness, and to prevent overlapping or conflicting records.
Data management systems should utilize quality control measures to detect and eliminate duplicate names, such as employing automated algorithms or conducting manual inspections.
Collaborative data sharing between researchers, institutions, and organizations can aid in detecting and resolving species dataset duplication issues.
Further research is necessary to comprehend the causes of duplication in species name datasets. This can include analyzing the data sources, scrutinizing the taxonomic literature, and exploring the ecological and biogeographical effects of duplication.

By implementing these recommendations, taxonomists could improve the accuracy of species name datasets while reducing duplication and improving the proper understanding of species diversity, distribution, and ecology. Adopting these recommended practices would lead to improved data quality and promote more reliable taxonomic research and analysis. Reducing duplication and enhancing understanding of species attributes would improve clarity and precision in scientific investigations. This would lead to better-informed conservation strategies, ecological assessments, and biodiversity management efforts. Implementing these recommendations would ultimately advance the field of taxonomy, enabling a more robust and accurate representation of the natural world.

Acknowledgments

Our sincere appreciation is extended to some of the esteemed ICZN Commissioners who graciously shared their valuable advice and insights during our correspondence. We are grateful to Behnam Motamedinia (Canada) for providing a photo of Bill Mason. We are very thankful to Gavin Broad (London) for sending Nixon’s obituary. Our gratitude is extended to Devon Henderson for drawing the caricature. Our thanks to the reviewers, the subject editor (Jose L. Fernández-Triana), and the copy editor (Nathalie Yonow) for their valuable feedback that enhanced the original manuscript.

Additional information

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Ethical statement

No ethical statement was reported.

Funding

MGM was supported by Rachadaphisek Somphot Fund for postdoctoral fellowship, Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University. BAB is funded by the Thailand Science Research and Innovation Fund Chulalongkorn University (BCG66230009) and Rachadaphisek Somphot Fund (RU66_008_2300_002).

Author contributions

Conceptualization: MGM. Formal analysis: MGM. Funding acquisition: MGM, BAB. Investigation: MGM, DCAP, MHL, BAB. Methodology: MGM. Project administration: BAB. Supervision: BAB. Validation: MGM, MHL, DCAP, BAB. Visualization: MGM, MHL, DCAP. Writing - original draft: MGM. Writing - review and editing: MGM, MHL, DCAP, BAB.

Author ORCIDs

Mostafa Ghafouri Moghaddam https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1942-9689

Diana Carolina Arias-Penna https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9601-3038

Minoo Heidari Latibari https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4158-8034

Buntika A. Butcher https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0541-0709

Data availability

All of the data that support the findings of this study are available in the main text.

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﻿Abstract

Key words

﻿Introduction

﻿Materials and methods

﻿Results

﻿List of identical specific epithets within the subfamily Microgastrinae

﻿Discussion

﻿Recommendations

﻿Acknowledgments

﻿Additional information

Conflict of interest

Ethical statement

Funding

Author contributions

Author ORCIDs

Data availability

References

Abstract

Introduction

Materials and methods

Results

List of identical specific epithets within the subfamily Microgastrinae

Discussion

Recommendations

Acknowledgments

Additional information