Corresponding author: Massimiliano Virgilio (
Academic editor: M.T. Vera
Previous attempts to resolve the
Van Cann J, Virgilio M, Jordaens K, De Meyer M (2015) Wing morphometrics as a possible tool for the diagnosis of the
“True” fruit flies (
Previous attempts to separate the three morphospecies using alternative diagnostic methods showed contrasting results. Both PCR - RFLP (
This paper aims at exploring morphometric differentiation between FAR morphospecies and genotypic clusters in an integrative taxonomic framework (see
We considered a set of 227 specimens genotyped at 16 polymorphic microsatellites (
A preliminary methodological experiment aimed at quantifying morphometric differences between sexes (see
PERMANOVAs revealed differences in multivariate patterns of 7 male and 7 female
Preliminary methodological control. PERMANOVA testing differences in multivariate patterns of wing landmarks and wing band areas of 14
wing landmarks | wing band areas | ||||||
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d.f. | MS | F | MS | F | |||
Sex = S | 1 | 0.0220 | 68.64 | *** | 0.1390 | 66.23 | *** |
Wing = W | 1 | 0.0001 | 0.30 | n.s. | 0.0006 | 0.28 | n.s. |
Image = I(W) | 2 | 0.0000 | 0.10 | n.s. | 0.0011 | 0.52 | n.s. |
Measure = M(IxW) | 4 | 0.0000 | 0.03 | n.s. | 0.0001 | 0.05 | n.s. |
S x W | 1 | 0.0001 | 0.45 | n.s. | 0.0006 | 0.29 | n.s. |
S x I(W) | 2 | 0.0000 | 0.06 | n.s. | 0.0001 | 0.03 | n.s. |
S x M(WxI) | 4 | 0.0000 | 0.04 | n.s. | 0.0001 | 0.04 | n.s. |
Residual | 96 | 0.0003 | 0.0021 |
The first two PC axes of PCAs including all specimens accounted for 57.9% and 47.6% of variation in males and females, respectively. PCAs of both wing landmarks (Suppl. material
The average individual PGMP within morphospecies (Figure
Individual assignments to morphospecies. Posterior group membership probabilities (PGMPs) of male and female specimens as resulting from Discriminant Analysis of Principal Coordinates of wing landmarks (upper) or wing band areas (lower). Prior groups:
Diagnostic performance at different identification thresholds. Proportions of male and female specimens consistently assigned (
PERMANOVAs evidenced significant interspecific differences in both wing landmarks and wing band areas (for both males and females, Table
Morphometric differences across morphospecies (wing landmarks).
PERMANOVA and |
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Morphospecies | 2 | 0.0021 | 2.34 | * | 2 | 0.0039 | 6.63 | *** |
Residual | 90 | 0.0009 | 54 | 0.0006 | ||||
Pair-wise |
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- | *** | * |
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n.s. | - | *** |
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* | n.s. | - |
Morphometric differences across genotypic clusters (wing landmarks).
PERMANOVA and |
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d.f. | MS | F | d.f. | MS | F | |||
Genotypic clusters | 4 | 0.0037 | 6.10 | *** | 4 | 0.0013 | 2.30 | ** |
Residual | 45 | 0.0006 | 10 | 0.0006 |
Pair-wise |
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A | F1 | F2 | R1 | R2 | |
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A | - | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. |
F1 | *** | - | * | n.s. | n.s. |
F2 | *** | n.s. | - | * | n.s. |
R1 | n.s. | ** | ** | - | n.s. |
R2 | ** | *** | ** | ** | - |
The preliminary methodological experiment showed significant differences between male and female
PERMANOVAs showed that
Distance thresholds are currently implemented in DNA barcoding identification of species (
This study suggests that wing morphometrics might represent a possible tool for the diagnosis of species within the
The authors would like to acknowledge all colleagues and collaborators who contributed to the sample collection. The study was supported by FAO/IAEA via the Coordinated Research Project ‘Resolution of cryptic species complexes of tephritid pests to overcome constraints to SIT application and international trade’.
Morphometric data
morphometric data
Specimen list and details and raw morphometric data (for both wing landmarks and wing band areas).
Map of sampling locations
occurence
Number of sampled specimens for each morphospecies are indicated in parentheses.
Wing landmarks and wing band areas
species data
List of wing landmarks and wing band areas considered in this study.
Wing landmarks and wing band areas
species data
Position of wing landmarks and wing band areas (numbers according to Suppl. material
Preliminary methodological experiment: unconstrained ordination of wing landmarks
species data
Principal component analysis (PCA) showing morphometric differences in wing landmarks of 14
Preliminary methodological experiment: unconstrained ordination of wing band areas
species data
Principal component analysis (PCA) showing morphometric differences in wing band areas of 14
Unconstrained ordination of wing landmarks across sexes of each morphospecies
species data
Principal component analysis (PCA) showing morphometric differences in wing landmarks between sexes of each morphospecies (
Unconstrained ordination of wing landmarks
species data
Principal component analysis (PCA) showing morphometric differences in wing landmarks between males and females (a)
Unconstrained ordination of wing band areas
species data
Principal component analysis (PCA) showing morphometric differences in wing band areas between males and females (a)
Constrained ordination of wing landmarks
species data
Discriminant analysis of principal coordinates (DAPC) maximising morphometric differences in wing landmarks between males and females (a)
Constrained ordination of wing band areas
species data
Discriminant analysis of principal coordinates (DAPC) maximising morphometric differences in wing band areas between males and females (a)
Average individual assignments
species data
Average individual posterior group membership probabilities (PGMPs) of male and female specimens of three morphospecies (
Individual assignments to genotypic clusters A, F1, F2, R1, R2
molecular data
Posterior group membership probabilities (PGMPs) of male and female specimens as resulting from Discriminant Analysis of Principal Coordinates of wing landmarks (upper) or wing band areas (lower). Prior groups: A, F1, F2, R1, R2 (from white to dark blue).
Morphometric differences across morphospecies (wing band areas)
morphometric data
PERMANOVA and a posteriori comparisons (t-statistic) testing differences in multivariate patterns of wing band areas among morphospecies (
Morphometric differences across genotypic clusters (wing band areas)
morphometric data
PERMANOVA and a posteriori comparisons (t-statistic) testing differences in multivariate patterns of wing band areas among morphospecies (